















1800 


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Concrete Products 

Their Manufacture 
and Use 


COMPILED, WRITTEN AND EDITED 
BY 

Wallace R. Harris 

Managing Editor, Concrete Products 

Member of 

Concrete Products Association (President) 
Society of American Military Engineers 
American Association of Engineers 
Engineering Institute of Canada 
Western Society of Engineers 
Illinois Society of Engineers 
American Concrete Institute 


Second Edition 


INTERNATIONAL TRADE PRESS, Inc. 
Monadnock Block 

CHICAGO 


Copyright, 1924. 











PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. 

Many persons have engaged in the manufac¬ 
ture of concrete products without knowledge of 
equipment or processes. It is hoped that this 
book will assist those about to engage in this 
growing industry, in determining: 

1— The product or products which can be sold in the. 
shipping radius of the proposed plant. 

2— The machinery, tools, general equipment and 
processes to be employed in manufacturing the products. 

3— The methods to be employed in promoting and 
selling concrete products. 

Too many persons have, in the past, played at 
making concrete products without realizing that a 
good business could be built up by earnest en¬ 
deavor to make high grade concrete units and to 
literally deliver the goods to the buyer in a man¬ 
ner which would result to the buyer’s entire satis¬ 
faction. 

New uses for concrete and precast concrete 
units are being discovered almost daily. Each 
new product or a new use for an old product 
should be carefully analyzed before the product is 
supplied for the new service. In short the con¬ 
crete products manufacturer should know that his 
goods will render the service required. It is 
hoped that this book will point the way to a 
healthy development of the concrete products in¬ 
dustry in which money can be made or lost, de¬ 
pending on the thought, energy, knowledge and 
equipment used in a market where the products 
can be sold. 

This book does not constitute the first or the 
last words on this important subject which covers 
so many different products. Therefore the author 
will gladly receive any ideas which may be ad¬ 
vanced by the reader future 





PREFACE. 


editions. Nor does this book attempt to tell how 
each product should be made as the nature and 
quality of materials and equipment and processes 
all have their proper relations to each other and 
to tell each step in the manufacture of many 
products would require a knowledge of the par¬ 
ticular process or machine which would be used 
by each reader. It is the desire of the author 
that by reading this book carefully the reader will 
avoid the pitfalls which have caused loss and 
failure to many would-be products manufacturers 
in the past. If this book does no more than cause 
a prospective maker of concrete products to give 
careful thought to materials, machines and proc¬ 
esses it will have served a good purpose. 

, 


PREFACE 


PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION 

Since the first edition of this book was pub¬ 
lished there has been a wonderful development in 
the concrete products industry. There has been a 
large increase in the number of factories estab¬ 
lished and the development in machinery, acces¬ 
sory equipment and processes has kept pace with 
the demand for more and better concrete products. 

This volume contains many new chapters in 
addition to new matter added to previous chapters, 
and yet it has been impracticable to give complete 
treatment to any one chapter. Recourse has been 
had to the publications of the Portland Cement 
Association, the proceedings of the American Con¬ 
crete Institute and of the American Society for 
Testing Materials and to other sources of infor¬ 
mation. 

Acknowledgment is hereby made for the 
assistance rendered on this as well as the first edi¬ 
tion by various members of the staff of the Port- 
lant Cement Association. 

lire author will gladly receive suggestions and • 
constructive criticism to the end that the third 
edition when published, will be, he hopes, an im¬ 
provement on this edition. 



DEDICATED 

to 


James Edward Montgomery, 
whose vision, labor and per¬ 
severance have largely made 
possible the development of the 
Concrete Products Industry. 






. ' 

' 






































TABLE OF CONTENTS 

For index see page XIX. 

Chapter I.—Concrete Products 

Page 

Products in Common Use. 1 

Discussion of Concrete Products in Europe and 

America . 2 

Advance of the Industry. 3 

History of Good Service.. 4 

Chapter II.—Concrete Products as a Busi¬ 
ness 

Market for Concrete Products. 11 

Products a Commercial Success. 12 

Possibilities for New Products. 13 

Financial Management . 14 

Production Management . ... 18 

Marketing Management . 21 

Chapter III.—Selling Concrete Products 

Factors Affecting Sales . 25 

Rural Markets. 27 

Diversified Production . 29 

Chapter IV.—Exhibiting Concrete Products 

Benefits of Public Exhibits. 32 

Chapter V.—Products Plant Service to 
Contractors 

Value of Good Will Based on Satisfactory Service 41 

Selling Ready Mixed Concrete.:... 42 

Co-operation Will Pay. 43 

Chapter VI.—Materials Used in Manufac¬ 
ture of Concrete Products 

Cement. 44 

Proper Storage of Cement. 44 

Bulk Cement . 46 

Aggregates . 49 

Slag Aggregate . 50 

Cinder Aggregate . 52 

Burned Clay Aggregate. 52 

Sawdust Aggregate . 52 

Colorimetric Test . 53 



























VIII 


CONTENTS 


Page 

Bank Run Aggregate... 54 

Unloading Frozen Aggregate. 55 

Hydrated Lime .. 56 

Economic Value of Admixtures. 57 

Proportioning Materials . 59 

Water for Concrete. 61 

Importance of Consistency of Concrete. 62 

Slump Test for Concrete. 65 

Mixing Concrete. 67 

Mixtures Recommended for Various Products... 72 

Chapter VII.—Concrete Products Plant 
Layout and Equipment 

Locating the Plant. 75 

Handling Materials . 80 

Selection of Machinery. 87 

Provision for Steam Curing. 96 

Study of Plant Plans. 101 

Chapter VIII.—Types of Block Machines 

Discussion of Typical Machines and Processes... 102 

Chapter IX.—Types of Block 

Discussion of Block Types. 108 

Chapter X.—Standard Block & Tile Sizes 

Discussion of Sizes of Block. 123 

Standard Sizes of Block. 130 

Chapter XI.—Hollow Building Tile 

Discussion of Uses of Tile. 132 

Concrete Tile Corn Cribs. 138 

Concrete Tile Bulkhead. 143 

Standard Sizes . 145 

Duntile . 145 

Chapter XII.—Concrete Brick 

Discussion of Brick Manufacture. 146 

.Standard Sizes of Brick. 148 

Haydenite Brick .•. 150 

Chapter XIII.—Concrete Chimney Block 

Discussion of Concrete Chimney Block. 152 

Multiplex Chimney Block. 152 

Cinder Concrete Chimney Block. 153 

Types of Chimney Block. 154 































CONTENTS IX 

Chapter XIV.—Concrete Steps 

Page 

Discussion of Concrete Steps. 156 

Chapter XV.—Sills, Lintels and Other 
Trims tone 

Advantages of Precast Sills and Lintels. 160 

Design of Sills and Lintels. 161 

Molds for Making Sills and Lintels.. 163 

Table of Lintel Sizes. 164 

Aggregate for Trimstone. 165 

Facing for Trimstone. 165 

Concrete Wall Coping. 168 

Chapter XVI.—Concrete Architectural 

Trimstone 

Use of Trimstone . 169 

Manufacture of Trimstone.,. 171 

Chapter XVII.—Concrete Floor Tile . 

Discussion of Concrete Floor Tile. 176 

Laying Floor Tile. 176 

Finishing Tile Floors. 178 

Non-Slip Floor Tile. 179 

Equipment and Manufacturing Methods. 180 

Chapter XVIII.—Concrete Floor Units 

Discussion of Concrete Floor Units. 182 

Centerless Concrete Floor Construction. 183 

American System of Floor Units. 187 

Chapter XIX.—Concrete Roofing Tile 

Need of Fireproof Roofs. 188 

Market for Roofing Tile. 190 

Marketing Roofing Tile. 190 

Colors for Roofing Tile. 194 

Discussion of Machines. 196 

Aggregates for Roofing Tile. 198 

Size and Weight. 198 

Manufacturing Cost . 198 

Chapter XX.—Cement Asbestos Shingles 

Discussion of Cement-Asbestos Shingles. 201 

Chapter XXI.—Ornamental Concrete 
Products 

Types of Ornamental Products. 203 

Manufacture of Ornamental Products. 203 































X CONTENTS 

Chapter XXII.—Plaster and Glue Molds 

Page 

Plaster Molds . 208 

Glue Molds . 210 

Chapter XXIII.—Working Details of 

Form Construction for Concrete 
Drinking Fountain 

Market for Drinking Fountains. 218 

Details of Forms for Drinking Fountains. 218 

Chapter XXIV.—Forms and Molds for 
Some Special Products 

Form Details for Curved Concrete Surfaces.227 

Forms or Molds for Ornamental Products. 232 

Chapter XXV.—Surface Finish of Concrete 
Products 

Use of Selected Aggregate. 236 

Acid Treatment of Surfaces.; 240 

Tooled Surfaces . 242 

Polishing Concrete . 243 

Coloring Concrete . 245 

Coloring by Absorption. 245 

Crushed Colored Glass. 247 

Slag By-product Aggregates. 247 

Colored Aggregate Producers—Marble. 248 

Colored Aggregate Producers—Granite. 249 

Colored Aggregate Producers—Mica Spar and 

Quartz . 250 

Colored Aggregate Producers—Crushed Glass... . 250 

Special Hard Aggregate Producers. 250 

Use of Air Tools. 250 

Chapter XXVI.—Cement Mortar Colors 

Effects Produced by Mortar Colors. 255 

Method of Mixing Colors. 257 

Table of Color Mixtures. 258 

Mixtures for Facings and Body of Block. 259 

Uses of Mortar Colors. 260 

Chapter XXVII.—Concrete Laundry Trays 

Evolution of Laundry Trays. 262 

Manufacture of Concrete Laundry Trays. 262 





























CONTENTS 


XI 


Chapter XXVIII.—Concrete Garbage and 
Ash Receptacles 

Page 

Why Concrete Receptacles Are Used. 267 

Chapter XXIX.—Concrete Septic Tanks for 
Sewage Disposal 

Possibilities in Septic Tank Business. 270 

Chapter XXX.—Concrete Bath Tubs and 
Flush Tanks 

Discussion of Concrete Bath Tubs and Flush 
Tanks . 273 

Chapter XXXI.—Concrete Silo Staves 

Types of Staves. 274 

Chapter XXXII.—Concrete Stave Struc¬ 
tures 

Types of Structures Built of Staves. 276 

Chapter XXXIII.—Concrete Lumber 

Lumber Systems Described. 283 

Burton System . 284 

Dodson Concrete Boards. 287 

Hahn System . 289 

Concrete Lumber Co.’s System..:.^. 293 

Sawyer System . 296 

Kent System. 299 

Chapter XXXIV.—Concrete Drain Tile 

Development of Drain Tile Industry. 306 

Details of Manufacture. 307 

Car Loading Tables. 311 

Recommended Methods of Manufacturing. 312 

Dimensions of Standard Drain Tile. 316 

Report of John T. Stewart. 317 

Chapter XXXV.—Concrete Irrigation Pipe 

Discussion of Irrigation Pipe. 321 

Endorsement of Government Officials. 324 

Quality of Concrete Irrigation Pipe. 328 

Chapter XXXVI.—Concrete Culvert Pipe 

Discussion of Culvert Pipe. 330 

Laying Culvert Pipe. 332 

























XII 


CONTENTS 


Chapter XXXVII.—Concrete Culvert Sec¬ 
tions 

Page 

Some Types of Concrete Culvert Sections. 334 

Chapter XXXVIII.—Concrete Sewer Pipe 
—Plain 

Types of Sewer Pipe and Machines. 336 

Types of Joints in Sewer Pipe. 337 

Chapter XXXIX.—Concrete Sewer Pipe— 
Reinforced 

Types of Reinforced Concrete Sewer Pipe. 338 

Essential Factors in Manufacturing Sewer Pipe.. 338 

Chapter XL.—Concrete Pressure Pipe 

Development of Pressure Pipe. 343 

Factors Affecting Design of Pressure Pipe. 343 

Essentials in Pressure Pipe Manufacture. 344 

Lock Joint Pressure Pipe. 345 

Leakage Allowance for Concrete Pressure Pipe.. 347 

Chapter XLI.—Pipe Manufacturing 
Methods 

Manufacturing Methods Detailed.'. 348 

Runways Used in Pipe Making. 351 

Industrial Railways Used in Pipe Making. 354 

Stiff-leg Power Derricks. 355 

Handling Molds and Pipe. 356 

Chapter XLII.—Testing Concrete Pipe 

Methods of Testing Concrete Pipe. 358 

Making Compression Test. 358 

Making Hydraulic Test. 360 

Chapter XLIII.—Concrete Pipe Electrical 
Conduits 

Field for Conduits. 363 

Essential Qualities of Duct Material. 365 

Comparison of Various Materials. 365 

Extensive Use of Concrete Conduit. 368 

Chapter XLIV.—Concrete Light Standards 

Manufacture and Use of Light Standards. 370 

Chapter XLV.—Concrete Fence Posts 

Manufacture and Use of Fence Posts. 377 























CONTENTS 


XIII 


Chapter XLVI.—Concrete Railroad Ties 

Page 

Discussion of Concrete Ties. 387 

Properties Required in Concrete Ties. 388 

Goodlett Railroad Tie. 389 

Shearer Railroad Tie. 393 

Dickey Railroad Tie. 396 

Con#ete Ties Used in India. 400 

Chapter XLVII.—Concrete Burial Vaults 

Discussion of Concrete Vaults. 402 

Materials and Methods Used in Making Concrete 

Vaults . 403 

Selling Concrete Vaults. 405 

Chapter XLVIII.—Concrete Monuments 
and Markers 

Discussion of Concrete Monuments and Markers. 407 

Chapter XLIX.—Curing Concrete Products 

Importance of Curing Concrete. 409 

Tests Made at Lewis Institute. 410 

Steam Curing Methods. 413 

Report on Design of Curing Rooms. 419 

Design of Steam Curing Rooms. 427 

High Pressure Steam Cylinders. 427 

Water Curing Methods. 429 

Curing Concrete Products in Summer. 430 

Chapter L.—Waterproofing Concrete 
Products 

Need for Waterproofing Materials. 433 

Integral Method of Waterproofing. 433 

Superficial Method of Waterproofing. 434 

Bureau of Standards Tests. 434 

Chapter LI.—Concrete Masonry Construc¬ 
tion 

Increased Use of Concrete Masonry Units. 437 

Characteristics of Concrete Masonry Walls. 439 

Bonding With Brick Construction. 441 

Mortar . 441 

Colored Mortars . 442 

Types of Mortar Joints. 442 

Corner Returns . 443 

Footings . 447 































XIV 


CONTENTS 


Page 

Table of Safe Loads for Soils. 448 

Calculation for Wall Footings. 448 

Making Basement Walls Watertight. 451 

Basement Partitions. 453 

Setting Door and Window Frames. 454 

Outside Fixtures. 455 

Lintels and Sills.;. *•.. 456 

Chimney Construction . 458 

Fireplaces . 458 

Belt Courses. 461 

Methods of Supporting Wood Floors. 461 

Support of Concrete Floors. 464 

Gable Construction. 466 

Attachment of Sills and Plates. 466 

Furring and Lathing. 466 

Cleaning Faced Block Walls. 469 

Protection During Construction. 469 

Chapter LII.—Stucco on Concrete Block 
and Tile 

Concrete Units Are Ideal for Stucco. 470 

Portland Cement Stucco Mixture. 470 

Application of Stucco to Block Surface. 472 

Color Pigments for Stucco and Concrete. 474 

Chapter LIII.—Cost of Masonry Walls 

Economy in Concrete Wall Construction. 477 

Detailed Costs . 478 

Chapter LIV.—Cinder Concrete Products 

F. J. Straub’s Patent. 479 

Fire Retardant Properties. 481 

Recommendation of Underwriters’ Laboratories.. 482 

Furnace Walls of Cinder Block. 483 

Sigurd Bo’s Patent. 485 

Bo Cinder Brick in Service. 485 

Chapter LV.—Porete 

Methods of Manufacturing Porete. 488 

Report of Test on Porete. 489 

Uses of Porete Slabs.489, 490 

Chapter LVI.—Novocrete and Woodcrete 

Novocrete . 492 

Woodcrete . 493 

Test on Woodcrete. 494 




































CONTENTS 


XV 


Chapter LVII.—Specifications for Build¬ 
ing Units 

Page 


A. C. I. Block and Tile Specifications. 496 

A. C. I. Brick Specifications. 498 

A. C. I. Roofing Tile Specifications. 499 

Chapter LVIII.—Specifications for Culvert 
Pipe 

Specifications Suggested for Pipe Over 24 Ins. 500 

Chapter LIX.—Specifications for Concrete 
Drain Tile 

A. C. I. Drain Tile Specifications... .. 504 

Chapter LX.—Specifications for Plain Con¬ 
crete Sewer Pipe 

A. C. I. Specifications for Plain Sewer Pipe. 511 


Chapter LXI.—Specifications for Rein¬ 
forced Concrete Sewer Pipe 

A. C I. Specifications for Reinforced Pipe. 518 

Chapter LXII.—Specifications for Concrete 
Pressure Pipe 

Specifications for “Lock Joint” Pressure Pipe.... 523 

Chapter LXIII.—Specifications for Stone 
Concrete Conduits 

A. R. E. A. Stone Concrete Conduit Specifications. 525 

Chapter LXIV.—Specifications for 2-Coat 
Stucco on Block and Tile Walls 


Portland Cement Stucco Specifications. 527 

Chapter LXV.—Building Codes and Ordi¬ 
nances 

Cincinnati Concrete Block Ordinance. 532 

Camden, N. J., Concrete Block Ordinance. 537 


Chapter LXVI.—Tests on Concrete Prod¬ 
ucts 

Importance of Tests 
Tests on Block. 


. 543 

544-550-551-552 














XVI 


CONTENTS 


Page 

Tests on Brick..545-546-547 


Tests on Concrete Building Tile.548, 549 

Chapter LXVII.—Association Co-opera¬ 
tion 

Donors to C. P. A. Fire Test Fund. 554 

Amount of C. P. A. Fire Test Fund. 559 

Chapter LXVIII.—Portland Cement Asso- y 
ciation 

What It Is and How It Operates. 560 

Chapter LXIX.—American Concrete In¬ 
stitute 

Organization and Operation of the Institute. 564 

Chapter LXX.—Concrete Products Asso¬ 
ciation 

Origin of Concrete Products Association. 565 

Certificates of Quality. 565 

Rules Governing Issuance of Certificates. 567 

Holders of Certificates of Quality. 570 

Plan of Organization. 572 

Chapter LXXI.—American Concrete Pipe 
Association 

Organization and Work of Association. 574 

Chapter LXXII.—National Concrete Stave 
Silo Association 

Organization and Operation of Association. 575 

Chapter LXXIII.—National Cinder Con¬ 
crete Products Association 

Possibilities for the Organization. 576 

Association Addresses . 577 

Chapter LXXIV.—Machinery and Molds 

Manufacturers of Highway Marker Molds. 578 

Manufacturers of Light Standard Molds. 578 

Manufacturers of Ornamental Molds. 578 

Manufacturers of Special Molds. 578 

Manufacturers of Sewer Pipe Machines. 580 

Manufacturers of Sewer Pipe Molds. 580 























CONTENTS 


XVII 


Page 

Manufacturers of Drain Tile Machines. 580 

Manufacturers of Catch Basin Block Machines. .. 580 

Manufacturers of Silo Block Machines. 578 

Manufacturers of Roofing Tile Machines. 578 

Manufacturers of Silo Stave Machines. 579 

Manufacturers of Corn Crib Machines. 579 

Manufacturers of Concrete Burial Vault Molds. . 579 

Chapter LXXV.—College and Commercial 
Laboratories Equipped for Testing 
Concrete Products 

Addresses and Locations of Recognized Labora¬ 
tories . 581 










. 



































































INDEX 


Page 

Absorption allowed on, block. 496 

brick . 498 

building tile. 496 

culvert pipe. 503 

roofing tile . 500 

Acid treatment of surfaces.240, 241, 242 

Admixtures..56, 57. 58 

economic use of. 57 

hydrated lime. 56 

Aggregates . 49 

bank run . 54 

burned clay . 52 

cinders . 52 

colored .248 to 250 

colorimetric test .y. 53 

colored glass, crushed.247, 250 

granite . 249 

gravel . 54 

marble ... r .-. ; 248 

mica spar and quartz. 250 

sawdust . 52, 53 

slag .50 to 52 

slag by-product aggregate.247 to 250 

trimstone for . 165 

unloading frozen. 55 

washing . 54 

Air curing concrete. 430 

Air spaces in, block. 113, 114 

hollow tile . 134 

American Concrete Institute. 564 

tentative standard on block. . . 496 

on brick .. 498 

on building tile. 496 

on drain tile. 504 

on plain sewer pipe. 511 

on reinforced sewer pipe. 518 

Standard 22, roofing tile. 499 

American Concrete Pipe Association. . 574 

American Railway Engineering Association, speci¬ 
fications for stone concrete conduits. 525 

Architectural trimstone . 11 

Asbestos-cement shingles .12, 201, 202 

Ash receptacles .267 to 269 

Associations .553, 560, 564, 565, 574, 575, 576, 577 

Association addresses . 577 














































XX 


INDEX 


Page 

Association co-operation .553 to 559 

donors to fire test fund. 554 

fire test fund, total. 558 

C. P. A. fund. 558 

Associations— 

American Concrete Institute. 564 

American Concrete Pipe Association. 574 

Concrete Products Association. 565 

National Cinder Concrete Products Association. . 576 

National Concrete Stave Silo Association. 575 

Portland Cement Association. 560 

Balustrades . 12 

Bank run aggregate. 54 

Basement partitions . 453 

Bath tubs . 273 

Belt courses . 461 

Bins, cement storage.47, 48, 49 

Block .*. 4 

absorption allowed . 496 

air space in.113, 114 

chimney .152 to 155 

mixture for .72, 73, 259 

per sack of cement... 72 

service . 4 

sizes ..123 to 125 

specifications for . 496 

standard sizes .130, 131 

strength required . 496 

tests on .544, 550, 551 

types of .108 to 122 

weight of...;. .... 112 

Block machines, manufacturers of.124, 125 

types of ....102 to 107 

Block molds .70, 107, 578 

Bo patent . 485 

Bonding block and brick walls. 441 

Brick .11, 12 

absorption allowed . 498 

machine manufacturers. 126 

mixture for . 147 

sizes .. 126 

standard sizes .. 148 

specifications for . 498 

strength required . 498 

.tests .544. 545, 546, 547, 552 

Building codes and ordinances.531 to 542 

Cincinnati ordinance . 532 

Camden ordinance . 537 
















































INDEX 


XXI 


Page 

Building tile, hollow.132 to 145 

absorption allowed . 496 

air spaces in. 134 

machine manufacturers . 125 

sizes . 125 

standard sizes . 145 

strength required . 496 

Building units, specifications for.496, 498, 499 

Building units, tests required.496, 498, 499 

Bulk cement .46, 47, 48 

Burial vaults .12, 402 to 406 

concrete consistency . 404 

equipment .402, 579 

materials and methods. 403 

mixture for . 73 

selling. 405 

vibrator . 405 

Burial vault molds. 579 

Burned clay aggregates.. 52 

Burton system of lumber. 284 

Car loading tables for drain tile.311, 312 

Catch-basin block*. 120 

Cement-asbestos shingles .12, 201, 202 

Cement. 44 

bulk .46, 47, 48 

storage .7. 44 

Cement mills, map showing location. 562 

Cement mortar colors.255 to 261 

mixing .257, 258 

uses .260, 261 

Certificates of quality, C. P. A. :..., . 565 

Characteristics of masonry walls. 439 

Chimney block .152 to 155 

Chimney construction . 458 

Cinder concrete products.479 to 487 

Bo patent . 485 

claims made for block. 480 

durability . 481 

fire retardant properties. 481 

furnace walls .1. 483 

practicability. 481 

serviceability . 485 

Straub patent . 479 

strength . 481 

uniformity . 482 

Cleaning walls . 469 

Coal pockets, stave.281, 282 

Colored aggregate, producers of.248, 249, 250 


















































XXII INDEX 

Page 

use of. 235 

Coloring concrete .245 to 247 

Colorimetric test . 53 

Colors for concrete. 258 

Columns, porch .. 12 

Colored mortars .^. 442 

Color pigments for stucco. 474 

College laboratories, testing. 581 

Commercial laboratories, testing. 581 

Compression test on pipe. 358 

Concrete floors, supporting. 464 

Concrete Lumber Co.’s system. 293 

Concrete, mixing.67 to 71 

mixtures .72, 73, 74 

Concrete Products Association.565 to 573 

certificate of quality. 565 

holders of certificates. 570 

instruction re specimens. 568 

plan of organization. 572 

rules governing certificates. 567 

Concrete products, dealing in.24 to 30 

list of ...'..1, 2, 12 

market for . 11 

Co-operation will pay. 43 

Concrete tile bulkhead.143, 144 

Conduits, electrical .363 to 369 

advantages . 367 

comparison of materials. 365 

essential qualities . 365 

extensive use . 368 

market for .’.. 363 

Corn cribs .138 to 143 

Corn crib block and stave machines. 579 

Corn crib block and stave molds and machines. 579 

Corner returns, block. 443 

Cost of masonry walls.477 to 478 

comparative cost . 478 

Culvert pipe .330 to 333 

absorption allowed . 503 

laying . 332 

mixture for .. 501 

reinforcement of .501, 502 

specifications for .501 to 503 

tests for . 502 

Culvert sections .334, 335 

’ Curing concrete.409 to 432 

air curing ... 430 

high pressure cylinders... 427 


















































INDEX 


XXIII 


Page 

in summer . 430 

rooms, design of. 427 

rooms, report on design. 419 

steam curing . 419 

water curing . 429 

Design of plant.75 to 101 

Dickey railroad ties. 396 

Dodson system of lumber. 287 

Donors to C. P. A. fire test fund. 554 

Door and window frames, setting. .. 454 

Drain tile.306 to 320 

car loading tables.311, 312 

details of manufacture.306, 307 

development of industry. 306 

manufacturers of machines. 580 

market for . 31 

mixture for .73, 314 

recommended methods for making...'...- .312 

report on service.:. 317 

standard data. 316 

Drinking fountain, details.218 to 226 

Effects produced by mortar colors. 255 

acid treatment .240, 241, 242 

brushing.240, 241, 242 

polishing . 243 

tooling .242, 243, 250 to 254 

water spray .240, 241 

Engineer, employment of. 100 

Exhibiting products.32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39 

Facing mixtures .74, 259 

for trimstone .74, 165 

Factors affecting sales.21 to 31 

Factors affecting weight of block. 112 

Fence posts .377 to 386 

consistency of concrete. 378 

mixture for.73, 382 

molds . 382 

reinforcement .378, 379, 380, 381 

trellis . 12 

types of . 383 

Finish for products.235 to 254 

Fireplace, construction . 458 

dimensions . 460 

Fire resistance, cinder block.481, 483 

cinder brick .485, 486 

stave silos .280, 281 

P'ire test fund. 558 

Fire tests, official .....'. 553 


















































XXIV 


INDEX 


Page 

Floor tile .176 to 181 

concrete mixture .176, 177 

cutting . 178 

equipment and methods.180, 181 

finishing floors .,.. 178 

how to order. 179 

laying .177, 178 

manufacturing process . 176 

non-slip .179, 180 

preserving floors .178, 179 

Floor units .182 to 187 

centerless systems .183 to 187 

Floors, supporting concrete. 464 

supporting wood . 461 

Flush tanks. 273 

Footings, wall . 447 

calculations . 448 

column, calculations. 451 

Foundations .12, 448, 451 

Forms for drinking fountains.218 to 226 

Forms for special products.227 to 234 

Forms for ornamental products. .208 to 216, 232 to 234 

Furniture, garden .12, 203, 217 

Furnace walls of cinder block.. 483 

Furring and lathing walls. 466 

Gable construction . 466 

Goodlett railroad ties . 389 

Goodlett vibrator .392, 395, 396, 405 

Granite, aggregate . 249 

Grave markers .12, 407, 408 

Gravestones . 12 

Gravel . 54 

Grindstones . 12 

Garbage boxes .267 to 269 

Garden furniture . 12 

Glass, crushed colored. 250 

Glue molds ...210 to 215 

Grain tanks .•. 12 

Grain elevators, stave. 13 

Hahn system of lumber. 289 

Haydite ...... . 52 

Heat transmission table. 489 

Highway markers . 30 

molds for . 578 

Hollow building tile .12, 125, 132 to 145 

Hydrated lime . 56 

Hydraulic test on pipe.... . 360 

Integral waterproofing method. 433 

















































INDEX 


XXV 


Page 

Irrigation pipe .321 to 329 

Kent system of lumber. 299 

Laboratories, testing . 581 

Larsite . 52 

Laundry trays .262 to 266 

Layout of plants.28, 75 to 101 

Lift trucks . 98 

Light standards .370 to 376 

Lime, hydrated . 56 

Lintels and sills.12, 456 

mixture for . 72 

molds for . 578 

sizes ..160 to 167 

Loads, live and dead. 449 

Load, limit of, on walls.449 to 451 

Load on soils, safe. 448 

Locating the plant.77, 78, 79, 80 

Lock Joint Pipe Co.’s specifications for reinforced 

concrete pressure pipe. 523 

Lumber, concrete.12, 13, 283 to 305 

Burton system .284 to 287 

Concrete Lumber Co.’s system.293 to 296 

Dodson system .287 to 289 

Hahn system .289 to 293 

Kent system .299 to 305 

Sawyer system .296 to 298 

Machines, block, types of.102 to 107 

Machines and molds, manufacturers of, block..124, 125 

burial vault molds. 579 

corn crib block and staves. 579 

drain tile machines. 580 

highway marker molds. 578 

hollow tile . 125 

ornamental molds . 578 

• roofing tile machines. 578 

sewer pipe machines. 580 

sewer pipe molds. 580 

silo block machines. 579 

silo stave machines... 579 

Marble aggregate . 248 

Management, division of. 14 

Management, financial .14 to 17 

balance sheets . 16 

budget of control. 15 

collections . 16 

commercial expense cost. 16 

cost of production. 15 

distribution of net profit. 17 
















































XXVI 


INDEX 


Page 

granting credit . 16 

investment distribution . 15 

obtaining credit . 16 

reorganization and increasing capital. 17 

system of records. 15 

trading and profit and loss statements.16, 17 

Management, production .18 to 21 

curing products. 20 

delivery of products. 20 

factory burden. 20 

finished products inventory. 19 

internal transportation . 19 

labor ..19, 20 

machinery and equipment. 18 

plant layout. 18 

processes of manufacturing. 21 

products to be made. 18 

purchasing . 18, 19 

qualifications and tests.20, 21 

raw materials inventory. 19 

wages . 21 

Management, marketing .21 to 24 

advertising . 23 

architects and engineers.23, 24 

competition . 24 

contractors . 24 

finding and creating markets. 22 

market statistics . 22 

sales resistance . 22, 23 

selling agents . 23 

selling compensation. 23 

selling expense . 24 

selling—organization of sales department. 23 

selling specials . 24 

trade channels. 23 

Map of cement mills. 562 

Map of slag industry. 51 

Map of Portland Cement Association offices. 560 

Markers, grave .,.'.12, 407, 408 

highway . 30 

Market for products. 11 

Masonry .437 to 469 

attachment of sills and plates. .. 466 

basement partitions . 453 

belt courses. 461 

bonding block with brick. 441 

calculations for wall footings. 448 

calculations for column footings. 451 


















































INDEX XXVII 

Page 

chimney construction . 458 

cleaning walls . 469 

colored mortars . 442 

corner returns . 443 

fireplaces . 458 

fireplace openings, dimensions. 460 

footings . 447 

furring and lathing. 466 

gable construction . 466 

lintels and sills. 456 

live and dead loads. 449 

load per lin. ft. of wall. 450 

method of supporting wood floors. 461 

mortar . 441 

mortar joints, types. 442 

outside fixtures . 455 

protecting walls. 469 

safe loads for soils. 448 

setting door and window frames. 454 

support of concrete floors. 464 

wall characteristics . 439 

waterproofing basement walls. 451 

Materials . 44 

coloring . 474 

proportioning . 59 

Measuring boxes .60, 61 

dimensions for . 61 

Measuring by wheelbarrow. 60 

Mica spar and quartz producers. 250 

Mixed concrete, selling of.42, 43 

Mixing concrete . 67 

Mixtures, recommended .72, 73, 74 

for block, body of. 73, 259 

for block facing.74, 259 

for brick . 74 

for building tile. 73 

for burial vaults. 73 

for concrete lumber. 73 

for culvert pipe. 501 

for drain tile. 73 

for fence posts. 73 

for floor tile. 74 

for ornamental units. 74 

for Portland cement stucco. 470 

for pressure pipe. 73 

for roofing tile.... 74 

for sewer pipe. 340 

for sills and lintels.... 73 


















































XXVIII 


INDEX 


Page 

for silo staves. 73 

Mortar colors .257 to 261 

mixing .257 to 258 

uses .260 to 261 

Mortar joints, types. 442 

Molds for, burial vaults.403, 579 

fence posts . 382 

highway markers. 578 

light standards . 578 

ornamental units. 578 

special products .227 to 234, 578 

sills and lintels. 578 

corn crib block and staves. 579 

roofing tile . 578 

silo block .‘. 578 

silo staves . 579 

Molds, glue and plaster.208 to 217 

National Cinder Concrete Products Association.... 576 

National Concrete Stave Silo Association. 575 

Novocrete and Woodcrete.492 to 494 

claims . 492 

mixture . 492 

report of test . 494 

woodcrete . 493 

Organizations promoting sales. 577 

Ornamental products .203 to 207 

forms and molds for.208 to 216 

Partition walls, basement. 453 

Pebbles.49, 53, 54 

maximum size . 50 

Pipe, culvert .12, 330 to 335 

drain tile .306 to 320 

irrigation ..321 to 329 

manufacturing methods .348 to 357 

pressure .12, 343 to 347 

sewer.12, 336, to 342 

testing.358 to 362 

Pipe manufacturing methods.348 to 357 

handling, molds and pipe. 357 

industrial railway . 354 

runways . 351 

stiff leg power derricks. 355 

Pipe testing .....358 to 362 

compression test . 358 

hydraulic test. 360 

Plant design .75 to 101 

Plant plans . 101 

Plaster molds ...208, 209 

















































INDEX XXIX 

Page 

Polishing concrete.. 243, 244 

Portland Cement Association.560 to 563 

map of district offices. 560 

what it is and how it operates. 560 

Porete ...488 to 491 

heat transmission table. 489 

mixture . 488 

roofing slabs . 490 

uses . 489 

Posts, fence.12, 377 

lighting or lamp.12, 370 

trellis . 12 

Poured block .70, 107, 114. 115 

Power presses .104, 105, 106 

Power tampers .102, 107 

Pressure pipe .343 to 347 

factors of design. 343 

leakage allowed . 347 

lock joint pipe. 345 

manufacture . 344 

testing . 358 

Products plant service to builders. 40 

Proportioning aggregate .59, 60, 73 

Protecting walls_. 469 

Railroad ties .387 to 401 

Dickey ties . 396 

Goodlett ties . 389 

properties required . 388 

Shearer ties . 393 

use in India. 400 

Ready mixed concrete, selling.42, 43 

Report on building units of National Conference on 

Concrete House Construction. 123 

Roofing tile .12, 188 to 200 

absorption allowed on. 500 

aggregate for .74, 198 

colors.194, 195 

load, allowed breaking. 499 

machines for .196, 197, 578 

manufacturing costs .198, 199 

market possibilities .190 to 194 

plant cost .199, 200 

size and weight .i. 198 

specifications. 499 

tests . 499 

Roofing tile machines and molds. 578 

Sales, factors affecting. 21 

organizations promoting .. 577 

















































XXX 


INDEX 


Page 

Sand . 49 

colorimetric test . 53 

silt test . 53 

Sand molds. 234 

Sawdust concrete .52, 53 

Selling products .21 to 31 

Selling ready mixed concrete. 42, 43 

Septic tanks .270 to 272 

Service to builders.40 to 43 

Sewer pipe, plain.336, 337 

machine made.336, 337 

machines . 580 

molds . 580 

reinforced .338 to 342 

Shearer railroad ties. 393 

Shingles, asbestos-cement .12, 201, 202 

Shope patent . 150 

Sills and plates, attachment of. 466 

Sills and lintels.160 to 168 

advantages of . 160 

aggregate for . 165 

design of ...161, 162, 163 

machines and molds for.163, 165 

sizes of. 164 

Silos ..12, 13, 31 

block machines, manufacturers of. 579 

Silo block molds . 578 

staves .13, 274, 275 

Silt in aggregate. 53 

Sizes of block.123 to 125 

brick . 125 

building tile . 125 

drain tile. 316 

Slabs, highway crossing. 13 

Slag aggregate .50, 51, 52 

Slump test .65, 66, 67 

Specifications, block and tile. 496 

brick . . 498 

culvert pipe .. 500 

drain tile . 504 

electrical conduits . 525 

pressure pipe . 523 

sewer pipe, plain . 511 

sewer pipe, reinforced. 518 

stucco . 527 

Spindles, bridge . 12 

rail . 12 

stair. 12 


















































TNDEX XXXI 

Page 

Standards, lighting . 370 

Standard sizes, block.130, 131 

brick . 148 

building tile. 145 

drain tile . 316 

office buildings .279, 280 

Stave coal pockets.281, 282 

silos .280, 281 

structures...276 to 282 

Staves, silo, manufacturers of machines for. 579 

mixture for. 73 

Stave structures . 276 

corn cribs .279, 280, 281 

fire resistance of. 280 

grain bins .279, 280, 281 

Steam curing concrete. 419 

Steps, precast .156 to 159 

Straub patent. ....... . 479 

Stucco on block and tile.470 to 476 

application of stucco. 472 

color pigments for stucco. 474 

Portland cement mixtures. 470 

Surface, finishes .235 to 254 

acid treatment.241, 242 

crushed colored glass. 247 

polishing . 243 

slag by-product aggregate. 247 

tooling .242, 243, 250 to 254 

Surface waterproofing. 434 

Table of aggregates for facing.247, 248, 249, 250 

granites . 249 

marbles . 248 

micaspar and quartz. 250 

Table of block mixtures. 259 

Table of block wall heights.127, 128 

Table of block wall lengths.127, 128 

Table of block sizes.124, 125 

brick sizes . 126 

building tile sizes. 125 

Table of car loading for drain tile.311, 312 

Table of coloring materials. 474 

Table of drain tile data. 316 

Table of mixtures for facings. 259 

Table of lintel sizes. 164 

Tanks, grain . 12 

septic. 270 to 272 

Tests on concrete products. ....543 to 552 

block .544, 550, 551, 552 


















































INDEX 


XXXII 


brick . 



Page 

.544, 545, 546, 547 

building tile. 



.548, 549 

colorimetric. 




culvert pipe . 



. 502 

roofing tile . 



. 499 

silt in sand . 




Tests required on building 

block. . 


. 496 

brick . 



. 498 

building tile . 



. 496 

Testing laboratories. 



. 581 

Testing, pipe . 



. 358 

Testing products . 



.543 to 552 

Ties, railroad . 



.387 to 401 

Tile, drain . 




floor . 



.176 to 181 

hollow building . 



.132 to 145 

roofing . 



.188 to 200 

Tile, tests . 



.548, 549 

Tool finish of surfaces... 



.242, 243 

Trimstone . 



....12, 169 to 175 

aggregate for . 



.165, 166, 167, 168 

facing for . 



.165, 166 

molds for . 



.171, 172, 173 

surface finishing. 



.174, 175 

Trays, laundry . 




Tubs, laundry . 




Types of block. 



.102 to 107 

Vaults, burial . 



. ... 13, 402 to 406 

mixture for . 



. 73 

Vibrator . 


387, 

392, 395, 396, 405 

Walls . 


. 437 

load limit on. 



.449 to 451 

Wall coping . 



. 168 

Water for concrete. 

....61, 

62. 63, 64, 65, 66, 67 

quantity required . 



. 64 

Water curing concrete. 



. 429 

Waterproofing, basement walls... 


. 451 

Waterproofing concrete .. 



.433 to 436 

integral method . 



. 433 

materials . 



. 436 

superficial method . 



. 434 

tests of U. S. Bureau of 

Standards. 

. 434 

Water tanks, stave. 



.116, 276 

Weights of block. 




White cement . 

...167, 

168, 

240, 255, 258, 373 

White sand . 

.240, 255 

Woodcrete . 




Wood floors, supporting. . 



. 461 


















































CHAPTER I. 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

Not so many years ago, mention of “con¬ 
crete products” would have brought to mind 
principally concrete block, brick, drain tile, sewer 
pipe, fence posts and possibly one or two other 
objects. But because of the wonderful increase 
in the use of concrete, and the number of sep¬ 
arate products or objects that can be made of it. 
concrete products now bring to mind many 
other units or objects besides those just men- 



One of Many Varieties of Uses for Concrete Block. 


tioned. There is hardly a day passes that care¬ 
ful inquiry would not disclose that some enter¬ 
prising individual or products plant had found it 
practicable to commercially manufacture some 
new object of art or use out of concrete. 

Concrete brick and structural tile, plain and 
ornamental cast trimstone, roofing tile, culvert 
and pressure pipe, lamp-posts or lighting stand¬ 
ards, concrete garden furniture, which includes 








2 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

flower boxes, urns, sun dial pedestals, bird-baths 
and fountains are all standard articles of com¬ 
merce, as are also laundry trays or tubs, green¬ 
house benches, burial vaults, meter boxes, silo 
staves, etc. 

All of those things now known as concrete 
products no doubt owe their origin and present- 
day existence to the old familiar concrete block 
sometimes referred to as cement block. Manu 
factured stone, similar to the concrete block of 
today, was first made many years ago in various 
forms and sizes. It was composed of materials 
similar to the concrete of today and was used in 
many of the monumental works of the old world. 
Southern Europe has disclosed many examples 
of concrete block well preserved after the test of 
centuries. However, many who compare these 
early examples with the concrete of today do not 
realize that the cements of those times were far 
different from the present standard manufactured 
product now everywhere known as portland 
cement. In reality concrete products of what¬ 
ever kind as they may be enumerated today owe 
their origin to the introduction of modern cement 
manufacture into America. It is true that there 
were examples of concrete block made in this 
country of imported cement. Structures made 
of such block are still standing and in use after 
more than half a century of existence. But 
these are examples of the infancy of an industry 
which really began to come into its own only a 
few years ago. At that time the idea of making 
block in shapes intended to be used in building 
hollow walls, so that in this manner insulation 
would be built into the structure to insure 
warmth in winter and coolness in summer, had 
not been considered. 

When concrete block gained a foothold in 
this country, their popularity was so instanta- 


INDUSTRY ADVANCES 3 

neons that many people rushed into the manufac¬ 
ture of them without proper knowledge of the 
nature of cement or of the materials to use in 
combination with it. As a result many worth¬ 
less products were turned out, and dissatisfac¬ 
tion from their use was so general that not only 
were early concrete block condemned, but they 
served almost to condemn concrete itself, be¬ 
cause nearly everyone thought that the poor con¬ 
crete block made and sold were typical of what 
could be expected of concrete, regardless of the 
way in which made and used. 

Machines that “anyone could operate’’ were 
advertised as a sure, short-cut to riches without 
much regard as to how they were operated. How 
foolish all this was has been realized only within 
the past 4 or 5 years, because within this short 
time more knowdedge has been acquired concern¬ 
ing the properties and use of concrete than had 
existed in all time preceding. 

Fortunately the slip-shod practices and methods 
of the early years of the industry have practically 
disappeared. There are few ignorant or un¬ 
scrupulous concrete product manufacturers t 5 n 
business today. The public has become so well 
educated as to what concrete is and should be 
that the market for worthless concrete block 
has disappeared along with the demand for the 
worthless gold-bricks of other days. 

The appearance of a properly designed con¬ 
crete block building should, and may easily be 
made to, surpass that of any other type of con¬ 
struction of like cost. Yet concrete block struc¬ 
tures have often been bitterly criticised, and not 
without reason, because of their ugliness. This 
has been due largely to the fact that until quite 
recently manufacturers of block machines, as 
well as those manufacturing block, insisted on a 
product having a face in gross imitation of 


4 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


natural stone. Generally the early block ma¬ 
chines had but one class of face-plate, and the 
molded effect of the imitation stone face it pro¬ 
duced was little short of a monstrosity. It was 
because this was the only type of block obtain¬ 
able that we find such widespread evidence of its 
use and at the same time wholesale condemna¬ 
tion of its appearance, because architects and 
others with well developed taste for things at¬ 
tractive could not see in such building units the 
material out of which they could express their 
ideal of whatever structure was in mind. 

Mention of concrete block thus far made is 
for the sole purpose of presenting an example of 
what bad practice may be expected to accom¬ 
plish in connection with the manufacture of any 
concrete product. Later all of the various pres¬ 
ent-day commercialized concrete products will be 
discussed more fully and the requirements of 
manufacture given. 

Concrete Block Give Good Service. 

Concrete structures built 2000 years ago give 
evidence of the stability of this valuable building 
material. It is generally believed that the concrete 
block industry is about 25 or 30 years old but 
buildings in Chicago prove that the industry is 
more than a half century old in America. 

A building stood for 55 years on an important 
corner of a main highway in what was Hyde Park 
and is now a part of Chicago but still known as 
the Hyde Park district. This solidly constructed 
structure has seen the growth of this district from 
a small village to a valuable and important part 
of Chicago where apartment buildings and the 
rents therefor reach to the sky. 

The exterior surface of the wall of this build¬ 
ing was painted and it was only when the building 
was being demolished for a more modern struc- 


5 


BLOCK GIVE GOOD SERVICE 
• 

ture that it was discovered that the walls were 
built of concrete block. The wall was in two 
parts with a continuous air space between. The 
outer wall was of solid block 4 ins. thick and the 
inner wall of solid block 8 ins. thick. These two 
block laid with an air space of 2 ins. resulted in a 
total wall thickness of 14 ins. for the first floor. 
Metal ties in. wide by 1/16 in. thick were 
used to tie the two walls. After 55 years’ service 
these ties were as good as new. The mill scale 
was intact and the rust was negligible. In the 



attractive Bungalow Built of Concrete Block in South 

Madison, Wis. 


same location, adjacent to a large body of water, 
these ties could he expected to continue to give 
good service for many centuries to come. The 
condition of the ties indicates clearly that no 
moisture penetrated the wall from either side and 
that the air space was dry. Similar service can 
be expected of the solid block now manufactured 
under various trade names. The inner face of 
the wall was plastered with lime plaster applied 
directly to the block surface. The owner of the 
building, Mr. Grubb, occupied the building for 
37 years as a drug store and states that the build- 

















CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


6 

ing was always dry and in the winter was warm. 
Dampness of only a slight degree would have been 
readily detected and Mr. Grubb's experience 
shows the utility of concrete block walls when 
properly built. 

Two-piece block have not become popular and 
in some districts are prohibited. The prejudice 
against two-piece block is based on the idea that 
the metal ties would soon rust away. This theory 

J J 



Concrete Block Have Been Used to Good Advantage in 
the Construction of this Home. 


is here proven untenable and other false theories 
prejudicial to concrete products are being swept 
aside as facts become known regarding the true 
serviceability of concrete building units and other 
products. Grubb’s drug store, a 2-story business 
building, was built on the site of a swamp 2 blocks 
from the shore of Lake Michigan and about 2000 
ft. from Jackson park, a swamp which was re- 














7 


SATISFACTORY SERVICE 

claimed for the purpose of building the World's 
Columbian Exposition. Here under conditions 
supposed to be decidedly unfavorable to concrete 
block construction this concrete block building 
has given the fullest measure of satisfactory serv¬ 
ice. After discovering the excellent condition of 
the walls it was decided not to demolish them 
entirely but to utilize the old walls as far as 
possible. 

The block used in this building were known by 



H. H. Allison, Salina, Kan., Believes in Living in a House 
Built of His Own Products. 


the trade name “Frearstone” due to the fact that 
the manufacturer was the George A. Frear Co., 
with a plant located on the site of the now famous 
Chicago Beach hotel at Hyde Park boulevard and 
Lake Michigan. Both plain and ornamental 
building block were made under the trade name 
of “Frearstone” in accordance with a process 
patented in 1867. 

Tests made in the Structural Materials Re¬ 
search Laboratory, Lewis Institute, Chicago, 
showed the block to have an average absorption 
















8 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


of 8.4% and an average ultimate compressive 
strength of 810 lbs. per sq. in. This average is 
of two lots of block, one lot of which averaged 
670 lbs. per sq. in., the other 950 lbs. According 
to the present tentative standard specifications of 



A 2-Piece Concrete Block Wall 55 Years Old Accepted for 
Many Years Additional Service. 











SERVICE POSSIBILITIES 


9 


the American Concrete Institute these block 
would be classed as "load bearing block.” Not¬ 
withstanding the fact that these block have given 
good service in the Chicago district for 55 years, 
concrete block are not recognized by the ancient 
building code of Chicago. This building’s record 
of service would contradict a statement made by 
a prominent Chicago official a few years ago to 
the effect that "the climate of Chicago is against 



Partial View of 55-Year Old Wall Showing Type of Con¬ 
struction with Solid Block and Wall Ties. 

concrete block.’’ Possibly the gentleman had in 
mind the "political atmosphere.” 

While a number of “Frearstone” buildings 
passed through the great Chicago fire successfully, 
it seems that although the block became to some 
measure popular, the builders in general did not 
take to the block. For some 8 vears the com- 
pany prospered and employed as many as 25 men 
in the plant. George Frear was in advance of the 
times and yet should have achieved a greater 
measure of success as a concrete block manufac- 



CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


in 

lu 

turer, not only because of the good quality of his 
block but also because he believed in exhibiting 
his goods. At the Chicago Industrial Exposition 
Mr. Frear exhibited Frearstone and synthetic 
marble in the years 1872 and 1873. Mr. Frear’s 
experience emphasizes the need of making quality 
concrete products and of keeping continually 
busy advertising the merits and availability of the 
products. 



Partition Wall of Concrete Block 55 Years Old in Which 
the Continuous Air Space May Be Observed. 






CHAPTER II. 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS AS A BUSINESS 

In various sections of this book special atten¬ 
tion has been given to the more common and 
better known concrete products. That more of 
such products have not become better known is 
principally because few realize how extensively 
concrete can be used in the manufacture of small 
things, both useful and ornamental. 

Probably the first question the intending manu¬ 
facturer of concrete products will ask is: 
“Where’s the market?” And in the next breath 
he’s likely to say: “How many concrete products 
are there?” 

The market is everywhere for those products 
having a strictly structural use. Never before 
was it greater in extent, nor in volume of prod¬ 
ucts to be manufactured to supply that market. 
Several years of practically enforced suspension 
of all classes of building operations, except those 
of the most urgent nature, have produced a 
dearth of homes, hospitals, churches, all kinds of 
public buildings, factories, farm structures, rail¬ 
road buildings—practically every class of struc¬ 
ture ; and there is no class of structure which 
cannot be built better in part, if not entirely, of 
concrete block, brick, or concrete structural tile 
with concrete trimstone. 

The fact that some of the types of struc¬ 
tures suggested may not have been built in large 
numbers of concrete products, does not mean 
that they cannot be built of such products. 
Rather it means that those in the concrete prod¬ 
ucts business have not been good salesmen, and 
have not taken advantage of existing markets, 
nor done anything to create new ones, or widen 
the range , of the old ones. 



12 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


/ 


When one asks what constitutes a list of 
concrete products, the question is hard to answer. 
At the present time all of the following are being 
manufactured with commercial success: 

Concrete block for example are made in a 
wide variety of form for an equal variety of use. 
Silos, foundations, building walls, corncribs, 
grain tanks, well casings, catch-basins and chim¬ 
neys may all be of block construction, and the 
block themselves may be of almost endless vari¬ 
ety of shape, form and surface appearance from 
the plainest type used in a structural wall that is 
ultimately to receive a stucco finish, to the block 
faced with any one of a number of selected mix¬ 
tures to produce a building unit superior even to 
the best cut-stone product. 

Then there are concrete brick in a large va¬ 
riety of color and texture which serve all the 
purposes commonly met by the various kinds of 
burned clay brick. 

Hollow tile for walls and partitions. 

Roofing tile, cement asbestos shingles. 

Various classes of trimstone such as sills, 
ornamental lintels, medallions, porch columns 
and balustrades, bridge, rail and stair spindles. 

Gravestones, grave-markers, burial vaults. 

Pipe intended for water pressure lines, for 
culverts, for sewers, for conduits and drainage. 

Grindstones. 

Garden or lawn ornaments such as benches, 
sundial pedestals, fountains, bird baths, flower 
urns and boxes and small statuary. 

There are many kinds of concrete posts 
made and in demand. Principal among these are 
those for ordinary fencing, street and highway 
markers, arbor and grapevine trellis, and orna¬ 
mental lamp posts or lighting standards. 

There is an extensive and growing market 
for so-called concrete lumber, which is nothing 

o 


VARIOUS USES 


13 


more nor less than lightweight reinforced con¬ 
crete panels that can be used for fences and light 
enclosure walls. There is almost endless oppor¬ 
tunity to develop a market for concrete lumber 
by standardizing products in a way that would 
permit assembly of units to build various kinds 
of containers or receptacles. Many mine shafts 
and other adjoining workings have been lined 
with such precast units instead of timber. 

The process is becoming common in some 
parts of the country to permanently improve rail¬ 
way crossings over highways by substituting con¬ 
crete slabs for the usual plank crossings 

The field for railroad ties is boundless, and 
while the development of what will probably 
prove a satisfactory tie to be used in place of the 
present wood, has been a long uphill process, this 
very fact proves that the field is waiting for the 
inventive genius who will solve that problem pro¬ 
vided railroad executives will realize the economy 
to be effected by using long life ties. In the chap¬ 
ter treating of concrete railroad ties will be found 
descriptions of ties that seem to meet railroad 
service requirements. 

Silo staves are used not only to build silos, 
but are readily adapted to the construction of 
material bins, such as those used to store aggre¬ 
gates, coal, grain and other bulk materials, and 
even to water tanks, walls and fences. 

Concrete products, such as garbage contain¬ 
ers, laundry tubs, septic tanks, water meter boxes 
and greenhouse benches are all within the range 
of the average product plant, and in many in¬ 
stances a ready market awaits only the necessary 
awakening on the part of the real products pro¬ 
moter and salesman. The preceding paragraphs 
should have answered the questions which intro¬ 
duce them. 

In summarization of what lias been presented in 


14 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS / 

the preceding chapters and in preparation for the 
succeeding chapters it is well to consider briefly 
what management is necessary in the concrete 
products business. 

Management may be divided into three depart¬ 
ments namely, financial management, production 
management and marketing management. The 
word management is taken advisedly as all of 
these departments, however small they may be for 
a beginner, must be efficiently managed. The 
size of this book does not permit going into detail 
in describing the factors entering into the man¬ 
agement of these departments but the suggestions 
may be taken as a foundation -for study and 
development. 

Financial Management. 

Success of any business depends on good finan¬ 
cial management. This is equally true whether the 
investment be large or small. Mistakes are costlv. 
The average life of business in the United States 
is 25 years. This indicates the need of co-opera¬ 
tion in ascertaining the most economical means of 
manufacturing and marketing the products made. 
The concrete products industry is in its infancy,, 
and yet the growth as evidenced by increased pro¬ 
duction is remarkable. For the two years 1921 
and 1922 the increase has been at the rate of $50,- 
000,000 a year and the increase in 1923 over 1922 
may total $100,000,000. 

Good financial management will provide for the 
purchase and storage of any raw materials in ad¬ 
vance of an actual shortage. Financial manage¬ 
ment should be under the direct control of but 
one person, whether the company be a partnership, 
firm, a corporation or a trust estate. Records 
should be kept of all financial transactions. The 
problem of how much money to invest in a con¬ 
crete products plant has been one of momenf to 


FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT 


15 


everyone who has started in the business or who 
has even contemplated doing so. Ordinarily a 
minimum capital of $25,000 would be required 
for a plant equipped to produce 1500 concrete 
block a day. 

Investment Distribution : Before raising the 
money it is well to plan its distribution unless one 
has unlimited means. This item is of importance 
when capital must be obtained from a number of 
persons. Distribution of investment must be well 
balanced or some functions of the plant operation 
may be hampered or even rendered of but little 
use. 

System of Records : A system of records is 
necessary for the proper financial management of 
any plant, large or small, or for a chain of plants. 
The system may be simple for small plants and 
may be elaborate but not too large for large plants 
or for several plants. Records should be so kept 
as to be readily understood and easy of interpre¬ 
tation. 

Budget of Control : Financial control by the 
budgetary system is comparatively new, but has 
proven to be the salvation of many businesses. 
By this system leaks may be quickly discovered. 
Progress is easily ascertained and responsibility is 
placed where it belongs. 

Cost of Production : If every products plant 
operator knew his cost of production, better and 
more uniform prices would result and there would 
be fewer failures in the concrete products indus¬ 
try. To arrive at fair selling prices, cost of pro¬ 
duction must be accurately known. By classify¬ 
ing the items of cost, excess on any items or group 
of items may be known and the causes removed. 

Selling Prices'. Selling prices should be based 
on costs of production, selling expense, adminis¬ 
trative expense and a fair profit. Necessarily 
prices of competing materials may afifect to some 


16 CONCRETE PRODUCTS \ 

extent the prices obtainable for concrete products. 
Unless the selling price is right, failure will come 
sooner or later. Guessing and knowing the right 
prices are greatly different. One should know 
both costs and profits. 

Commercial Expense Cost : Commercial ex¬ 
pense cost should be computed in both small and 
large plants. Certain salaries or parts of salaries 
are chargeable to this item of cost. 

Obtaining Credit : If this question could be 
solved for every concrete products plant the in¬ 
dustry would advance even more rapidly than its 
present rate of progress. Studying the experience 
of other successful plants will assist in solving 
this problem. Bankers will be able to look more 
favorably on the industry if ability to carry loans 
safely by products plants is demonstrated. 

Granting Credit : Granting credit is equally 
important to securing credit. The amount of 
credit any one plant can give its customers is lim¬ 
ited and the limitation is easily ascertained by 
proper financial management methods. Compari¬ 
son with terms and time limits on credit obtained 
is necessary. 

Collections : A definite policy should be 
adopted on collections, and good business prac¬ 
tice must be followed to the end that “good will” 
be not lost and that payments will be made 
promptly. Methods of politely but firmly request¬ 
ing payment of accounts due will be effective in 
most cases. 

Balance Sheets: Balance sheets are the bane 
of many plant operators, when it comes to pre¬ 
paring them but, they are carefully examined by 
banks when loans are desired. Analysis of bal¬ 
ance sheets and comparisons of one with another 
will be of invaluable aid to the manager of the 
plant and will assist in gaining recognition from 
bankers. 


FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT 


17 


Trading and Profit and Loss Statement : The 
final analysis of financial management should be 
shown in the trading and profit and loss state¬ 
ment. This statement would be of great value to 
the operator of a concrete products plant and 
would assist in showing the banker the actual 
condition of the business and the safety of loans 
made to the plant operator. 

Distribution of Net Profit : Distribution of 
profits is not as simple as it may seem to the casual 
thinker. The individual owner may think all of 
the profits belong to himself alone. The partners 
may think that all profits should be divided 
equally, and stockholders may think that all profits 
should be pro-rated as dividends. Proper finan¬ 
cial management demands that part of the profits 
be devoted to safeguarding the business and to 
providing for its enlargement. 

Reorganization and Increasing Capital : Suc¬ 
cessful products plants require expansion and 
many operators have found this problem one of 
great importance. Either the existing going con¬ 
cern must grow with the business or other plants 
will be established in the same locality to take the 
business turned away by the pioneer plant and 
probably take some of the pioneer’s business. In 
such cases the survival of the fittest will follow as 
a natural consequence. Plants starting under in¬ 
dividual ownership may for several reasons jus¬ 
tify taking in one or more partners. Partnership 
firms frequently find that it is desirable to change 
to some form of corporate ownership. A suc¬ 
cessful plant operator in one locality may find an 
opportunity to start another plant in a territory 
not yet served by a concrete products plant. In¬ 
stances of this nature are numerous and prac¬ 
tically all of such companies are highly successful. 
To save an insolvent company it is frequently 
necessary to reorganize and thereby prevent 


18 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


failure or dissolution. Increased capital and a 
proper plan of reorganization often turn failure 
into success. 

Production Management. 

Products management is one of the trio of fac¬ 
tors affecting the success of business. Cost de¬ 
pends on costs of raw materials and the costs of 
production. Efficient production management 
means low cost on the factory end of the business. 
Knowledge of products which can be made in con¬ 
junction with existing lines may assist in reducing 
costs. Production must be carefully studied from 
all angles to prevent losses. 

Products to Be Made : A study of the market 
will often indicate that some additional product 
can be made to effect a greater spread of the over¬ 
head. It may be that a change of product may 
be beneficial or that a change in process will re¬ 
sult in lower cost of production. 

Machinery and Equipment : Machinery and 
equipment employed must be considered from the 
point of money available for these items and for 
the production desired at the outset or at some 
desired future date. 

Plant Layout : Plant layout determines the 
sequence of operations, the length of haul for raw 
materials and finished products and the power or 
labor involved in handling the materials and 
products. Inadequate space will result in higher 
production cost. Spreading over too much 
ground will also increase cost of manufacturing. 
The plant layout must be considered and deter¬ 
mined before the site is bought or leased. Once 
installed, it is difficult and expensive to change 
the plant layout. Therefore the greatest care in 
this work is necessary. 

Purchasing : Market conditions should be 
known and buying for a small or a large plant 


PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT 19 

should be conducted on a business basis to the 
end that the best materials at the lowest prices be 
obtained and at times and in quantities required. 
Where, when and how to buy, how much to buy, 
how to test for quality and how to contract for 
delivery should be given careful thought. 

Razv Materials Inventory: Quantities of ma¬ 
terials on hand should be accurately known at all 
times, for with this information the plant operator 
can take advantage of a temporary low market or 
can determine if he can stock up for a famine 
which may be in view. Waiting to order until 
stocks are low or exhausted is poor business and 
will result in higher costs. Steady deliveries will 
result in better co-operation on the part of the 
material producer or dealer. 

Finished Products Inventory : An inventory 
of finished products is necessary. The status of 
stocks on hand should be readily determined at 
all times, to the end that low stocks can be re¬ 
plenished before rush orders are received. With 
accurate inventories, the sales force will be able 
to promise definite deliveries on quantities of 
products within the stock limits. The relation of 
finished products on hand to capital is important. 
A perpetual inventory will assist in preventing 
tying up capital in slow-moving products. 

Internal Transportation : Handling materials 
and finished products, both green and cured, is an 
important problem not always easy to solve. 
There have been frequent changes in systems of 
handling, because the right system for the particu¬ 
lar plant was not selected or because the plant out¬ 
grew the system. Internal transportation should 
be so designed as to decrease the travel of ma¬ 
terials and products to the lowest possible limits. 

Labor : Labor is ever a problem, for where 
wages are highest, usually labor is less desirous of 
earning its high pay. The selection of the best 


20 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


men or the right men for the various jobs is of 
utmost importance. There must be a balance be¬ 
tween mechanical equipment and human labor. 
One must supplement the other. Where advis¬ 
able, mechanical equipment will often take the 
place of labor to the advantage of the plant owner, 
as witness the concrete mixer versus the board 
and shovel, or the power tamper versus hand 
tamping. Employes should be well cared for if 
they are to remain healthy and happy. 

Delivery of Products: The service of the sell¬ 
er to the buyer is not complete when the products 
are made. The matter of delivery is a part of the 
service, but the method used to give this service 
must be selected because of its peculiar fitness for 
the plant in question. Cost of delivery will be 
affected by the methods used. Comparisons of 
costs of delivery by various methods must be con¬ 
sidered. Co-operation of yardmen, delivery men 
and receiver will often result in a satisfactory low¬ 
ering of costs. 

Factory Burden : Factory burden is indeed a 
burden to the cost accountant. To most products 
plant operators the burden is not shouldered by 
the operator, and as a consequence he does not 
know the relation of factory burden to his costs 
and cannot figure intelligently against competition. 
All of the items under this head must be figured 
and properly distributed. Factory burden exists 
whether the operator recognizes it or not. 

Curing Products : The importance of proper 
curing has not been generally recognized, and con¬ 
sequently the operators of products plants are not 
getting all the service value out of the cement they 
use. Methods of curing have been improved in 
the past 5 years and now we are in position to 
devise an efficient and economical system for the 
plant in hand, wherever it may he located. 

Qualifications and Tests: Efforts are being 


PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT 21 

made to increase the markets for concrete prod¬ 
ucts and to this end qualifications are being defined 
by organizations having to do with specifications 
and building regulations. The concrete products 
industry is awakening gradually to the necessity 
for frequent tests of products so the properties of 
the products will be known and so the products can 
qualify under strict specifications or codes. Causes 
for poor quality must be ascertained and those 
causes removed. Until the industry as a whole 
does this, the members may expect competing in¬ 
terests to succeed with their adverse propaganda. 

Processes of Manufacturing : High grade 
products may be made by one or all of several 
processes. The process for any one plant to use 
will sometimes, but not always, be determined by 
the location and size of the plant site. Climatic 
conditions may affect the selection of the process. 
The merits of each process, when known, will in¬ 
dicate its particular usefulness under a given set 
of conditions. 

Wages : Wages must be paid and we must 
consider that the laborer is worthy of his hire. 
Methods of computing wages or the basis on 
which wages are computed will often afifect the 
results in work accomplished. Under union rules, 
where concrete workers are paid a set hourly rate 
and piece work is not permitted, some way must 
be found to stimulate the interest of the workmen 
in the quantity and quality of work accomplished. 

Marketing Management 

It is important that a business be well financed, 
properly equipped and efficiently operated as 
it may fail if the marketing management is 
weak. It is one thing to make a good product 
and another thing to sell that product. Knowl¬ 
edge of market conditions and of the main factors 
affecting the market places the products maker 


22 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

or concrete contractor in a good position to con¬ 
trol his business as a captain controls his vessel on 
the high seas. Business may be likened to the sea 
for it has its currents, its squalls, storms, reefs, 
lee shores and safe harbors. As a sea captain 
must use a chart on which to plot his progress day 
by day, so in this industry knowledge of naviga¬ 
tion must be displaced by a knowledge of finan¬ 
cial management, production management and 
marketing management. 

Market Statistics: Before buying or leasing a 
site it is wise to study the market conditions in the 
district in which it is proposed to sell the products 
of the plant. The amount of business should be 
ascertained or estimated. The products now be¬ 
ing used and the quantities being absorbed by the 
market should be determined. The reasons why 
certain products are being used should be studied. 
Products being shipped in should be studied. Any 
prejudices existing against concrete units should 
be considered. Partiality to any products should 
be analyzed. The possible extension of the mar¬ 
ket should be estimated. The various trade chan¬ 
nels should be considered. The need of any new 
products should be kept in mind. 

Finding and Creating Markets : The live con¬ 
crete man will not be satisfied to supply the ready 
market but will strive to increase the demand and 
to extend the market. Analyzing sales, discover¬ 
ing new uses, reading market reports, canvassing- 
architects and contractors, keeping in touch with 
issuance of building permits, careful advertising 
to educate the public and keeping up with the 
demands of the market—all help to achieve ulti¬ 
mate success. 

Sales Resistance : Sales resistance includes 
price cutting, production of inferior products, 
prejudices based on ignorance, bad impressions 
caused by poor products made in the past, igno- 


MARKETING MANAGEMENT 


23 


ranee of prospective buyers both of the merits of 
the products and of their existence, the use of 
clay products, existence of old established com¬ 
petitors and better terms granted by competitors. 
All of these must be considered by the man who 
desires to overcome sales resistance. 

Selling—Organization of Sales Department : 
The proper organization of the sales department 
is of the utmost importance. All men are not 
salesmen. Men must have natural aptitude for 
salesmanship and must also have the training 
necessary to sell the products. Part of the sales¬ 
man’s ammunition will consist of certificates of 
quality, test reports, photographs of products and 
structures, letters of commendation, small sam¬ 
ples and a thorough knowledge of the properties 
of his products and of ways and means of han¬ 
dling them on the job and of building them into 
the finished structure. 

Selling Compensation : Salesmen are usually 
well paid. The basis of compensation is impor¬ 
tant to the success of the salesman. 

Trade Channels : There is more than one trade 
channel through which to place the products on 
the market. The channels will vary somewhat 
with different products. 

Selling Agents : Selling through agents is be¬ 
coming more popular as time passes; witness the 
present method of marketing portland cement al¬ 
most entirely through dealers. 

Trade Channels : Under this head should be 
considered methods of dealing with general con¬ 
tractors, sub-contractors, skilled artisans, and the 
important subject of trade discounts. 

Advertising : Through advertising, the igno¬ 
rance of the prospective buyers will give way to 
knowledge of the merits of concrete products. 

Architects and Engineers'. Architects and en¬ 
gineers are employed on large projects where one 


24 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

sale might keep a plant busy for the season. The 
majority of products plants overlook this fact and 
take the easiest business that comes in sight. 
Proper relations must be established with archi¬ 
tects and general and sub-contractors to the end 
that more products will be used. 

Contractors : Contractors are frequently per¬ 
mitted to use their discretion in ordering standard 
building materials and also frequently have in¬ 
fluence with owner, architect or engineer as all of 
these parties will rely somewhat on the experience 
of the contractors with whom they deal. . 

Competition : All sources of competition must 
be studied. The most serious competition comes 
from the clay industries and in too many cases 
the competition is not clean. If every concrete 
contractor and every products man would make 
quality products, and would co-operate in extend¬ 
ing the market, the clay products industry would 
be the only competitor. The concrete products 
plants would divide a business large enough to 
satisfy all plants which can or will be built within 
the next 10 years. 

Selling Expense : This subject always arouses 
the interest of owner or president. It is expected 
that the most sales should be made with the least 
selling expense and in the bookkeeping it is neces¬ 
sary to keep these accounts correctly so the selling 
expense will always be known. 

Selling Specials : Too many orders are lost 
for concrete block, brick or tile because specials 
could not be furnished. It is not always prac¬ 
ticable or advisable to make all of the units re¬ 
quired in a structure and this means that in one 
district a number of plants can arrange to 
exchange, on a fair sales bads, the products of 
the several plants. 


CHAPTER III. 


SELLING CONCRETE PRODUCTS. 

Very few persons have the things they want 
handed to them on a silver platter; but very few 
need be denied these wants, if within reason, 
provided they will go after the things they want. 
Probably one reason why some products manu¬ 
facturers have not made a howling success of 
their business is that outwardly they have never 
displayed any faith in it. Certainly a prospec- 



ADAMANTINE CAS 1 STONE 

BUILDINGTRIM COlL-iS 

MAS/V/AC TUJ?rD £fY 

CFOHNE CONCRETE PRODUCTS CO DECATUR. ILL. 


Exhibit of Adamantine Cast Stone Co. at a Local Ex¬ 
hibition of Home Town Products. 

tive customer of a products plant is not invited 
to the wares that plant produces when the plant 
buildings and the plant office are represented by 
ramshackle structures of wood, when they might 
be of concrete block or brick. It is a case of 
showing one’s colors. 

Few products plants have an attractive of¬ 
fice ; few have a collection of photographs of 
structures built from their products or in which 









26 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


their products have been used; few seem quali¬ 
fied to tell prospective customers how to use the 
product to best advantage; few buy newspaper 
space to tell their story to an ever listening 
market. 

Selling concrete products is no different from 
selling any other reputable commodity. The 
plant which knows it turns out high-grade con¬ 
crete brick, block, tile or any other products, 



Exhibit of Concrete Products at an Own Your Home 

Exposition. 


only has to tell the good points of that product 
to sell it. It is not necessary to compare it with 
a competing material to the detriment of the 
competing material. More often than not such 
practice is a dangerous one for the seller, even 
though he has the better product, for it may in¬ 
vite first attention to the competing material. 
Most people know what the common building 
materials will do. Not everyone, however, 
knows of the many uncommon as well as com- 












RURAL MARKETS 


27 


mon things that can be accomplished with con¬ 
crete. Therefore to mention these possibilities 
of concrete fully, causes the prospective cus¬ 
tomer to make his own comparisons and to rec¬ 
ognize concrete’s superiority. 

Although concrete products manufacture is es¬ 
sentially a local business depending for its suc¬ 
cess largely upon the people of the community 
where carried on, the possible field of operation 
is by no means limited to the hauling radius by 
motor truck or team. Many manufacturers have 



Exhibit of Ideal Cement Stone Co. at a Local Building 

Materials Show. 


developed a flourishing business in outlying rural 
districts because of the very favorable freight 
rates accorded to concrete products. Silo staves, 
building block, drain tile and a number of other 
concrete products for which there is a ready rural 
market, are regularly shipped considerable dis¬ 
tances. 

In some localities the opportunity to dispose 
of one particular product may be so good as to 
keep the manufacturer from recognizing equal 
opportunities for other lines. Nevertheless, he 
will usually find on investigation that there are 



28 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


several ready markets for different products, 
possibly equal if not superior to the product to 
which he is devoting exclusive attention. Any 
products plant can turn out regularly a number 
of different products with but minor changes in 
plant equipment, once the plant as an original 
unit is complete. 

Careful thought must be given to the layout 
of plants designed to manufacture more than one 



Exhibit of Concrete Building Units at the 1924 Convention 
of the American Concrete Institute, 

Drake Hotel, Chicago. 


product or more than two similar products. It 
must be borne in mind that where all of the prod¬ 
ucts are made at the same time that mixer ca¬ 
pacity must be equal to the output of all ma¬ 
chines or processes used in manufacturing. Cur¬ 
ing rooms must be large enough to hold the en¬ 
tire daily output of the various machines and 
where one product requires a different arrange¬ 
ment of curing rooms or a longer period of time 







DIVERSIFIED PRODUCTION 


29 


for curing these points must be borne in mind 
and provision made for them. 

Where the demand for some products would 
not require constant manufacture this should be 
considered. Some products may be made in the 
spring, summer and fall and others in the winter 
so the working force can be employed the year 
round and the plant be kept in profitable oper¬ 
ation. If, however, the demand for any one 
product requires the full year’s time and all of 
the time of the working force then the manufac¬ 
ture of additional products must be handled as 
if a separate plant was making them. Depart¬ 
ments should be organized and sufficient space 
must be available for the proper handling of 
materials, processes and finished products. 

As an alternative for making all the products 
that are salable in any one district, the several 
plants in a district could agree to specialize on 
particular products and to bring in products made 
elsewhere. As cases in point may be mentioned, 
cement-asbestos, shingles, concrete roofing tile, 
concrete floor tile. Cement-asbestos shingles re¬ 
quire large and expensive plants and the products 
can be shipped economically within a large radius. 
Concrete roofing tile requires a separate plant in 
many cases and requires skilled operators for the 
most economical and greatest production. Where 
but one roofing tile machine or possibly two ma¬ 
chines are bought to work in conjunction with 
block or brick machines the operator should bear 
in mind that if he makes and sells high grade 
products his business will grow to such an extent 
that he will require more machines of each kind 
and the plant must be so designed that each de¬ 
partment will have its full share of working, 
curing and handling space. Where the different 
products require different concrete mixtures either 
as to water content, proportioning of materials 


30 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


or size of aggregate it will be either necessary to 
run for awhile on one product or to have a mixer 
for each product of varying concrete mixtures. 

Where an operator of a products plant buys 
and sells such products as he does not care to 
make himself he may soon develop such a de¬ 
mand for the products that he may want to en¬ 
gage in their manufacture on a large scale. By 
buying high grade concrete roofing tile from a 
manufacturer in another town and selling them 
with his own block and brick he not only creates 
a demand for the product with no initial outlay 
for equipment but is able to give his customers 
practically an all concrete house which is not al¬ 
ways practicable where only block or brick are 
made. In every town the products manufac¬ 
turers should know each other and should en¬ 
courage the sale of products made in the town. 

There seems no limit to the structural possi¬ 
bilities of concrete products. New uses and new 
applications are being developed almost daily. 
Every new use means a new market previously 
untouched, and one of the greatest markets for 
concrete block for example at the present time is 
for building concrete garages. When one real¬ 
izes that at the end of 1924 it is reported there 
were 15,223,658 automobiles and motor trucks 
in the United States, one can see that even 
though only one car in ten were housed in a con¬ 
crete block garage, it would require some plant 
capacity throughout the United States to take 
care of that demand alone. 

Permanent highways are being rapidly ex¬ 
tended to all parts of the country. With high¬ 
way improvement has come the insistent need of 
properly marking them in various ways. On 
some highway systems concrete highway markers 
are standard. There is no reason why thev 
should not be standard on every highway. 


DIVERSIFIED PRODUCTION 


31 


Coincident with highway development is the 
necessity for permanent waterway openings and 
the consequent market for concrete culvert pipe 
wherever openings of pipe construction will meet 
local requirements. 

More than 6,000,000 farms need nearly that 
many silos. This, in spite of the fact that the 
number of silos has increased by the tens of 
thousands during the past few years. 

Drain tile alone has a tremendous market. A 
few years ago the U. S. Department of Agri¬ 
culture estimated that there were about 80 , 000 ,- 
000 acres of unreclaimed swamp and overflowed 
land, and over 150 , 000,000 acres which, though 
in cultivation, should have their possible produc¬ 
tiveness increased by suitable drainage. Possi¬ 
bilities in this field have scarcely been touched. 
The market for concrete drain tile, as for other 
concrete products, is waiting. 


CHAPTER IV. 


EXHIBITING CONCRETE PRODUCTS. 

Although concrete is more than 2000 years 
old yet the manufacture of concrete products is a 
modern industry. There are many persons who- 
are ignorant of the existence of concrete prod¬ 
ucts and of the plants which manufacture them. 
Therefore operators of products plants should 



Concrete Building Units Exhibited at Northwest Concrete 

Show, 1921. 

not overlook any opportunity to show their 
goods and familiarize the public with their prop¬ 
erties and quality. 

The accompanying illustrations show- what 
some manufacturers have done and this should 
inspire others to do as well or better. Samples 
on exhibition should not be especially made for 
the purpose but should be taken from stock and 




















EXHIBITING CONCRETE PRODUCTS 33 

be representative of the goods that would he de¬ 
livered to buyers. 

Exhibits may show the separate products alone 
or laid up into walls or other structures so as to 



Exhibit of Concrete Pipe and Tile in a Civic Parade. 


demonstrate their uses. It has been found 
profitable by exhibitors to exhibit at county or 
state fairs, local picnics of general civic interest, 
displays of home made building products and 



Concrete Block and Drain Tile at a County Fair. 













34 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


other gatherings where prospective buyers con¬ 
gregate and have time to examine products on 
view. 



Another County Fair Exhibit of Concrete Products. 


Provision should be made to take orders as 
well as to explain how the products are used and 
to detail and demonstrate their merits. At such 



Concrete Products Booth in Exhibition Room During 
American Concrete Institute Convention, Chicago, 1924. 












EXHIBITING CONCRETE PRODUCTS 35 


times copies of results of tests on the exhibitors 
products could be shown. Booklets describing the 
uses of concrete products should be distributed 
in addition to catalogs or other printed matter. 

Where shows of building material or concrete 
shows are held concrete products should take a 
prominent place. The Northwest Concrete Show 
conducted by the Minnesota state branch of the 
Concrete Products Association, in 1921 , proved 
what can be done to build up a live interest in 



Atlas Portland Cement Co.’s Exhibit at Own Your Home 
Exposition, New York, 1924. 


concrete products of all kinds. In 1923 at the 
Own Your Home Exposition in Chicago a num¬ 
ber of excellent exhibits of concrete products 
were shown and at the New York shows in 1923 
and 1924 and in the Chicago show in 1924 full 
size concrete block houses were built and were 
viewed by thousands of home builders. In other 
cities many exhibits have been installed at local 


















36 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


shows and it is reported that the exhibitors are 
receiving appreciable benefits from the shows. 

At the 1924 convention of the American Con¬ 
crete Institute, Chicago, concrete products were 
exhibited in an attractive manner and created a 
good impression. The accompanying illustrations 
indicate the character of the exhibits which were 



Exhibit of Concrete Roofing Tile and Other Building Units 
at the New York Own Your Home Exposition, 1924 


ewed !)\^ archrtects, engineers, contractors and 
products manufacturers. 

Arrangements for exhibits at state and county 
fairs, local shows or at large gatherings of any 
kind where goods are displayed should be made 
well in advance of the opening date. An attend¬ 
ant familiar with the products, with prices, prop¬ 
erties and deliveries should be in attendance at 
the exhibit during the hours the exhibition is open 
to the public. Many questions will be asked and 
should be answered as completely as possible. 














EXHIBITING CONCRETE PRODUCTS 37 


Good will can be created at such exhibits which 
will cause a pleasant memory to remain with the 
visitor. Good will in the concrete products busi¬ 
ness is an asset which should not be neglected. 



Washington, D. C. Lower Views of Concrete Art 
Panels Indicating Character of Ornamental 
Work in the Church. 


No promise or statement should be made at the 
exhibit which cannot be fulfilled or proven. 

The attendant at the exhibit, whether the owner 
of the plant or an employe, should take the atti- 






CONCRETE PRODUCTS 




Garden Furniture Exhibited at Northwest Concrete Show, 

1921. 


Motor Truck Delivers and Exhibits Concrete Products. 


tude of a good salesman and regard every visitor 
to the exhibit as a prospective buyer. The foun¬ 
dation for many future sales is made at public 
exhibits of building materials. 

It should be borne in mind by manufacturers 











EXHIBITING CONCRETE PRODUCTS 39 

of concrete products that the buyer must be sold 
on concrete products before his order is taken. 
The order is written proof that the buyer has 
been sold. Exhibits such as outlined herein help 
to sell concrete products to the man who needs 
them. The buyer must be made aware of his 
need and how it can be satisfied by the use of 
concrete. Concrete products should be of such 



Exhibit of Ornamental Concrete Products at Northwest 

Concrete Show, 1921. 


high quality that every manufacturer would be 
proud to have them viewed by all passers by. It 
might be well to adopt this slogan: 

Make, Show and Sell Quality Concrete 
Products. 












CHAPTER V. 


PRODUCTS PLANT SERVICE TO 
BUILDERS. 

Buyers of concrete products want service. They 
are not so much interested in what composes the 
products but are very much interested in the 
service the products will give when installed in 
their final position. 

Whether it be a block, brick or hollow tile for 
walls, floor tile or roof tile, the architect wants 
to know the shapes, dimensions, weights and 
other physical properties of all of these units. He 



With a Motor Truck Quick Delivery Can Be Made on 
Rush Orders for Concrete Building Units. 


wants to know what appearance will be presented 
by the finished building of which the products 
form an important part. He wants to know the 
durability and fire and weather resistance of the 
building units. 

The builder wants to know the physical prop¬ 
erties and those merits which will appeal to the 
contractor and the mason laying the brick, block 
or tile. He is interested in getting the units on 
the job. 

The home owner is interested in the durability 






SERVICE TO BUILDERS 


41 


of his dwelling and its appearance and, if he is 
wise, wants to know to what extent insurance 
rates and maintenance charges are reduced by 
using any particular building material. 

The material dealer wants to know that the 
products he stocks can be sold to advantage and 
at a profit and that the demand will continue. 

It devolves upon the manufacturers of con¬ 
crete products to satisfy all of these demands and 
to give the architect, builder and home owner 
service in the fullest meaning of the term. It is 
not sufficient that the best materials, the best 
equipment and the best processes be used. It is 
equally essential that the completed units be de¬ 
livered in a satisfactory manner to the builder 
and that co-operation be extended to the builder 
in any way which would tend to enable him and 
his men to receive, handle and lay the concrete 
building units in an approved manner and with 
the least expense of labor and materials. The 
concrete block, brick or tile maker can often give 
pointers to the builder and his men on handling 
and laying the units. This should be done. The 
operator of a concrete products plant is not sell¬ 
ing aggregate, cement and water in the form of 
factory made concrete but is selling service which 
is not given until the units are built into a com¬ 
pleted structure and the structure is placed in use. 
A knowledge of carpentry may assist a block, 
brick or tile maker in selling block, brick or tile 
service. 

Delivering concrete building units or other 
products is no small item to be considered. The 
builder wants the products promptly when his 
masons need them. He wants them free from 
flaws due to careless or rough handling. He 
wants the block or tile specials when he is finish¬ 
ing the part of the work requiring the specials 
and not several days later. 


42 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


All of the foregoing is meant to call attention 
to the fact that the maker of concrete products 
will prosper in proportion to the service he gives. 
It will pay to co-operate with architect, builder, 
dealer and owner. 

Selling Ready Mixed Concrete. 

As every dwelling in which concrete wall or 
door units are used requires some concrete for 
foundations, footings or doors it is possible that 
the products plant could often deliver ready mixed 
concrete to the contractor on the job. Often the 
general contractor or builder may be a specialist 
in carpenter work and may not care to invest in 
concrete equipment for a comparatively small part 
of his work. He may not care to move a concrete 
mixer to a small job requiring but a few cubic 
yards of concrete. 

To sell ready mixed concrete may require 
another mixer and a motor truck equipped with 
a dumping body designed to carry concrete. This 
practice has been successfully developed on high¬ 
way construction and can be used to excellent 
advantage on building work. The mixing plant 
and the delivery trucks will in a year mix and 
carry a larger amount of concrete than mixers 
and trucks owned by individual building contrac¬ 
tors which are used but a short time each year. 
The general contractor can use his carpenters to 
erect the form work ready for the mixed concrete. 

The fact that most products plants are located 
on railroad sidings means that often the mixed 
concrete can be delivered at the building site with 
no greater expense than in delivering the cement 
and aggregate. Again the fact that a mixer is 
eliminated from a residence street may eliminate 
the complaints which are sometimes registered 
against building contractors. 

Ready mixed concrete can be mixed in the 


SERVICE TO BUILDERS 


43 


specified proportions and to the consistency de¬ 
sired. It can be delivered without any serious 
disadvantages as has been proven on highway 
projects. Concrete for footings, basement walls, 
floors, sidewalks and other work can be delivered 
as and when wanted to the building contractor 
without waste of materials, time or labor. With 
motor trucks mixed concrete can be delivered 
within a radius of, say, 5 miles of the mixing 
plant. 

The development of this business would tend 
to promote the greater use of the concrete prod¬ 
ucts made by the same plant. Quality ready 
mixed concrete plus quality concrete building 
units should assist in the plant operator achieving 
success. It is necessary that his mixing equip¬ 
ment be adequate and arranged for the purpose 
of delivering mixed concrete into motor truck 
bodies. It is not probable that the same mixer 
will serve the concrete products machines and the 
building contractor’s requirements at the same 
time. Such service is likely to prove popular 
with builders after satisfaction is given on one 
contract. 

Co-operation Will Pay. 

If the concrete products industry is to develop 
to a much greater extent it is necessary that those 
engaged in the industry take a broader view of 
their duty to others. A little unselfish work in 
helping the contractor-buyer of concrete products 
will tend to create greater satisfaction with the 
products. If operators of concrete products 
plants take an interest in the work of architects 
and builders they will find that the architects and 
builders will take an interest in concrete products. 
It pays to co-operate. Those who do not know 
how to co-operate should learn how and profit 
thereby. ' v 


CHAPTER VI. 


MATERIALS USED IN THE MANUFAC¬ 
TURE OF CONCRETE PRODUCTS. 

Practically all concrete products are made of 
either a simple concrete or mortar mixture. 
The most important ingredients in concrete are 
Portland cement and water, because without 
these the other materials used in its composition 
could not be firmly bound together. 

Cement. 

In all concrete work it is customary to 
specify a portland cement meeting the standard 
specifications of the American Society for Test¬ 
ing Materials. It is not the purpose of this book 
to outline the methods of cement testing. Any¬ 
one who has ordinary knowledge of making and 
using concrete knows that the many commercial 
brands of portland cement now on the market 
are made according to exacting requirements and 
meet the specifications mentioned. So about all 
that need be said as to the kind of cement used 
in concrete products manufacture is that the 
manufacturer or products plant operator may 
purchase one of the well-known brands on the 
market with the assurance that it will conform to 
standard requirements. 

Proper Storage of Cement. 

About the only thing that can happen to ce¬ 
ment to render it unfit for use between time of 
manufacture and combining it with other mate¬ 
rials to form a concrete mixture is “caking,” due 
to absorption of moisture. For that reason 
cement stored for future use should be kept in a 
weather-tight, dry building. The building may 
be of monolithic concrete, concrete block, good 



CEMENT 


45 


frame or any other type of construction, but 
every precaution must be taken to prevent any 
more than ordinary atmospheric moisture from 
coming in. contact with it. Even the possibility 
of excessive atmospheric moisture should be 
avoided by tight walls, roof, windows and double 
doors. 

Pile cement on solid floor planking. If store¬ 
house has a board floor it should be double with 
two layers of building paper and one layer of 



Plan 

Plan of Bin Suggested for Storing Bulk Cement With 

Elevator. 

tarred building paper. Do not pile cement nearer 
than 6 ins. to the walls of the storehouse. For 
safety, pile cement in alternate header and 
stretcher courses. Pile no higher than 12 courses 
or layers for temporary storage nor higher than 
6 courses for storage to exceed 60 days. Use ce¬ 
ment in rotation as received. Keep different 
brands separated to insure uniformity in color 
of work and to avoid confusion in returning 
empty bags. 

Sometimes sacked cement in piles will, be¬ 
cause of the weight of the cement, cause “stor¬ 
age caking” in the lower sacks of such piles. 
Such caking is not to be confused with that 
resulting from absorption of moisture by the 
cement, as the cement can readily be restored to 
normal condition by rolling or dropping the 
sacks. If any existing lumps from whatever 







46 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


cause can be broken by slight pressure in one's 
hand, it indicates that the cement has not been 
damaged during storage and may be used. 

Bulk Cement. 

In many large construction jobs cement is used 
in bulk, that is, it is shipped loose in tight 



Suggested Design for Bin and Equipment for Handling 

Bulk Cement. 


box-cars and handled in and out of the cars 
almost like other bulk materials are handled. 
There is considerable saving in handling cement 
in this way. First, there is no tying up of money 





























































CEMENT 


47 


in sacks nor any loss of money due to the sack 
losses that are certain to follow because of lack 
of care in handling and returning sacks to mills. 
Consequently, all the labor of counting, bundling 
and bookkeeping on sacks is done away with. 
With no sacks to be worried about, there can be 
no fire loss on sacks. There are no hauling 
charges nor freight to pay on sacks returned and 
because no money is tied up in them, there are 
no interest charges to be computed. There is 



Method of Handling Bulk Cement Adopted by a Chicago 

Products Plant. 


less labor in handling cement from car to bin 
and from bin to mixer. 

For these reasons bulk cement is particularly 
adapted to the cement products plant, and it is 
possible to work out simple and satisfactory 
methods for bulk handling just as sand and 
coarse aggregate are handled. If the railroad 
siding at the plant is above floor level of the 
storage bin, some form of bucket conveyor or 
elevator is desirable to elevate the cement into 
the bin quickly with minimum expense. Such 
equipment may be obtained from any one of sev- 


























































48 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


era! manufacturers who have designed special 
machinery for this purpose. The cement may be 
shovelled by hand to the elevator boot or a power 
shovel used to unload the car in the same man¬ 
ner as grain is unloaded. Seven to io hp. is re¬ 
quired for unloading 200 bbls. in 3 hours by 
means of a simple bucket elevator and power 
shovel. Wherever labor can be eliminated by the 
use of mechanical equipment, the savings should 
be properly noted. 

Some products plants using bulk cement 
handle it in the plant in measuring boxes or 



Plan of Bulk Cement Storage Room Used by Chicago 
Concrete Products Plant. 


wheelbarrows in the same manner as sand or 
stone, but if the plant output is large enough to 
justify the use of conveyors for aggregates, the 
same manner of handling bulk cement will 
usually be found desirable. 

The bulk cement bin should be considered 
as a storage place, as probably there will always 
be some cement in the bin. For this reason it 
should be so built and located in the plant as to 





















49 


AGGREGATES 

protect its contents from moisture. In sketches 
shown elsewhere suggestions are given not only 
for plant layouts but for such accessories to the 
plant as bulk cement storage bins. 

One advantage in the use of bagged cement is 
that the quantity of cement in each bag is definitely 
known to be 94 lbs. which in most work is as¬ 
sumed to be 1 cu. ft. although the actual volume 
of 94 lbs. of cement would be nearer .92 cu. ft. 
Where bulk cement is used care must be taken 
to see that cement is accurately measured or 
weighed so each batch of concrete will contain 
its proper quota of cement. Measuring devices, 
in general, would not be as accurate as weighing 
devices. 

Bins for storing cement should be tight. Chutes 
and gates or valves to the bin must be properly 
designed. Disappointment will result from care¬ 
lessly built cement storage bins or from improper 
methods of handling and measuring the cement. 

Aggregates. 

The principal bulk of materials entering into 
any concrete is the sand and pebbles or broken 
stone. Natural sand or any other material such 
as stone screenings used in place of it is referred 
to as “fine aggregate." Pebbles and broken 
stone are called “coarse aggregate." It is neces¬ 
sary to distinguish between sand and pebbles or 
broken stone 1 by fixing some arbitrary limit of 
size for these materials. As a rule, maximum 
size of sand is fixed at /4-in. and from that size 
downward to the finest particles exclusive of 
what may be considered dust. Pebbles or broken 
stone, that is coarse aggregate, range from pj in. 
upward. In all cases of concrete work, other 

J Broken stone viz: Crushed granite, limestone, trap 
rock, marble, blast furnace slag, burned clay, Haydite, 
cinders or other hard natural and by-product materials 
suitable for concrete. 



50 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

than in the manufacture of most concrete prod¬ 
ucts, the maximum size of pebbles or broken 
stone used in the concrete mixture may range up 
to 3 ins. in greatest dimension. Usually, how¬ 
ever, the average is around 1^2 ins. In prac¬ 
tically all concrete products such a maximum is 
too large, so the maximum size of coarse aggre¬ 
gate for products work is generally not more 
than 1 in. There can be no fixed rule because 
of the great variety ol concrete products. Some 
classes of products permit use of a coarse aggre¬ 
gate no larger than y 2 in. in greatest dimension. 
Others may be best made of a cement-sand or 
mortar mixture. 

Slag Aggregate. 

There are approximately 50 slag crushing and 
screening plants in the United States, part of 
whose finished product is available in sizes suit¬ 
able for concrete and concrete products. 

Air cooled blast furnace slag has proven its 
value in concrete work of all kinds such as build¬ 
ings, bridges, highways, sidewalks and concrete 
products. Having a high fusing point, slag con¬ 
crete is particularly adapted for use where high 
temperatures are likely to prevail either by intent 
or accident. Blast furnace slag is obtainable from 
many plants and wherever iron ore is reduced or 
steel mills are operated, blast furnace slag should 
be obtainable. 

Where products are desired of greater weight 
than 150 lbs. per cu. ft., slag from smelters may 
be obtained. Sometimes the service to be re¬ 
quired of concrete products varies to such an ex¬ 
tent as to in one case demand lightweight units 
and in another heavy units. Ballast blocks for 
submarines have been made of concrete and in 
such cases it is evident that the greatest weight 
in the least space is desirable. Slag concrete will 
meet these requirements. 


AGGREGATES 51 

1 ests made on slag concrete cylinders and 
cubes show that this material is worthy of the 
careful consideration of every products plant 
operator. 

Crushed blast furnace slag has been used suc- 



Map of Part of United States Showing Districts in Which 
Blast Furnace Slag Is Used as Concrete Aggregate. 


cess fully in the construction of modern concrete 
highways, concrete bridges, sewers, culverts and 
buildings. Its use is increasing in the concrete 
products industry. Building block, hollow build¬ 
ing tile and burial vaults are only a few-of the 


















52 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


products now being made of slag aggregate where 
slag is available. 

Herein is a production map of the slag industry 
of the United States. All of it lies east of the 
Mississippi river. The shaded areas shown were 
derived by obtaining from the different producers 
the names of the shipping points to which slag had 
been supplied from their respective plants. These 
cities were located on a map and the indicated 
points joined by straight lines. The enclosed 
areas were then crosshatched to shade the differ¬ 
ent sections. The etching shown is taken direct 
from one of a number of maps that were placed at 
the disposal of several governmental departments 
for their use during the World War. 

Cinder Aggregate. 

Power boiler cinders are being used in the pro¬ 
duction of high grade building units. All cinders 
are not suitable for the manufacture of concrete 
and any source of supply should be investigated 
to determine the quality and the quantity of cin¬ 
ders available. This subject will be discussed at 
greater length in the chapters devoted to patented 
processes. 

Burned Clay Aggregate. 

During the War light weight aggregate for ship 
construction was developed by burning clay which 
puffed when burned. The product was given 
various trade names such as Haydite and Larsite 
which were derived from the names of the inven¬ 
tors Messrs. Hayde and Larson respectively. 
Haydite is being used commercially but not as yet 
on a broad scale. 

Sawdust Aggregate. 

Sawdust is being used as concrete aggregate 
under trademarked names. Light weight and fire 
resistant concrete is obtained by using treated 


COLORIMETRIC TEST 53 

sawdust in combination with portland cement and 
water. Further discussion of this subject will be 
given in the chapters treating of patented 
processes. 

Colorimetric Test. 

Sand and pebbles or broken stone must be 
free from any foreign material such as clay, 
loam and rotted vegetable matter. Anything 
more than a trace of these should be removed by 
washing the aggregates in question before they 
are used in a concrete mixture. Rotted vegetable 
or organic matter as it is called, is particularly 
objectionable. A simple practical test for the 
presence of such impurity has been developed, 
known as the colorimetric test. This is made 
as follows: 

A 12-oz. graduated prescription bottle is filled 
to the 4T2-OZ. mark with the sand to be tested. 
Then there is poured in the bottle a 3% solution 
of caustic soda (obtainable at any drug store) 
until the volume of sand and solution after 
shaking amounts to 7 ozs. The bottle is then 
shaken thoroughly and allowed to stand for 24 
hours. If, at the end of this time, the liquid 
above the sand is colorless, or only light yellow 
in color, the sand is sufficiently free of organic 
matter to be used in concrete, providing its other- 
qualities are suitable. 

If the liquid is darker than a light yellow or 
a straw color, approaching a brownish yellow, 
the sand may be used for unimportant concrete 
work, such as light foundations, but should not 
be used where maximum wear or strength is re¬ 
quired. If the liquid is dark brown the sand 
must be washed or rejected. 

Sand may be tested for presence of silt as fol¬ 
lows : Fill a 32-oz. graduated bottle with sand 
to 14-oz. mark; add water to 28-oz. mark, shake 


51 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


vigorously for i minute and allow to settle for 
i hour. If more than i oz. of sediment appears 
above sand, the material represented by the 
sample should not be used. 

Where large quantities of material must be 
washed, special equipment is desirable. Usually 
washing is done at the pit or natural deposit 
where the aggregates are obtained. This avoids 
rehandling, as they can be conveyed directly into 
the washing plant and its screens for sizing 
aggregates, with least handling, thus avoiding 
unnecessary and expensive rehandling at the 
products plant. 

Bank-run material, that is the natural de¬ 
posit of mixed sand and pebbles as found in the 
so-called gravel bank, lacks the required grading 
as to size of particles and ratio of fine to coarse 
material desirable for the manufacture of good 
concrete. Such material should, therefore, always 
be screened so that the sand and pebbles may be 
recombined in correct ratio of volumes. Such 
screening and regrading pays, if for no other 
reason than in the resulting economy of cement 
necessary to produce a concrete of required 
strength. In other words, without such screen¬ 
ing and reproportioning, an unnecessarily exces¬ 
sive amount of cement would be required to pro¬ 
duce concrete of required strength. 

A number of things influence the strength of 
concrete. Among these are quality of aggregates 
with respect to their hardness and toughness, 
grading of their particles, their freedom from 
such foreign material as loam, clay, silt and rot¬ 
ted vegetable matter, the amount of mixing water 
used, the" manner -of protecting the concrete 
after placement in the molds and after removal 
from the molds. Probably the most important 
factor of all of these'is the water ratio tO' cement 
.content. 


FROZEN AGGREGATE 


55 


So far as strength is concerned, it is iniposr 
sible to make concrete block or any other prod-; 
uct stronger than the aggregate of which it is in 
part composed. 1 Its ultimate strength is demon¬ 
strated when a fractured block shows a cleavage, 
of the coarse aggregate. In fact, this is one indi¬ 
cation of the strength of any concrete, and also 
indicates the tenacious binding properties of the 
cement. 

Frozen or cold aggregate can be thawed and 
warmed to proper temperature by piling over 
steam coils or on a section of pipe or smokestack 
in which a fire has been kindled, or by thrusting 
a perforated pipe directly into the pile and blow¬ 
ing live steam through it. Water can be heated 
by inserting perforated steam pipe in a barrel of 
water, or by using any one of a number of water 
heaters on the market. 

Continuous rotary sand dryers and heaters are 
made by most manufacturers of elevating and 
conveying machinery. 

Unloading Frozen Aggregates. 

Following is given an actual experience in un¬ 
loading frozen aggregate which may help other 
operators of products plants: 

During the winter of 1919 it was found on try¬ 
ing to unload a large number of cars, at a prod¬ 
ucts plant, that the sand was frozen solid. 

Loosening by pick was extremely difficult and 
expensive and an endeavor to loosen up the mate¬ 
rial with light charges of dynamite did not prove 
effective or economical. In the meantime, the 
installation of a boiler and a steam line was com¬ 
pleted in the products plant to within a few feet 
of the wall which parallels and is adjacent to 

iThis statement is only generally true as is evidenced 
by the strength of cinder concrete products which are 
stronger in compression than the cinder aggregate alone. 
See chapter on tests of concrete products for further 
information. 



56 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


the siding from which cars are unloaded. To this 
steam- line was attached a i-in. steam hose, ap¬ 
proximately 30 ft. long. O11 the outer end of the 
hose was a short ^-in. nipple, ^4-in. gate valve 
and then a 6-ft. section of ^ 4 -in. pipe. Steam at 
approximately 30 lbs. pressure was turned in to 
the line through an intermediate valve placed 
within a few inches of the take-off of the main 
steam line. The flow of steam was then regulated 
by operating the valve on the outer end of the 
hose. 

The nozzle end of the 6-ft. pipe, with a light 
supply of steam, was then started into the sand 
in a perpendicular position and was worked to 
the bottom of the car with an ever increasing 
volume of steam. This operation, repeated two 
or three times across the width of the car, thawed 
out the sand and made it possible to unload to the 
bottom of the car. While unloading this thawed 
portion, the nozzle was started in a horizontal 
position about a foot from the top of the sand 
and was worked a full 6 ft. The pipe was then 
withdrawn and the operation repeated two or 
three times until the bottom of the car was 
reached. It was found that by carrying a steam 
pressure of 30 to 40 lbs. on the boiler it was pos¬ 
sible to thaw the sand as fast as two men could 
unload the sand. The actual cost of labor, un¬ 
loading in this manner, was increased but slightly 
over unloading unfrozen sand. 

Hydrated Lime. 

In the manufacture of some concrete prod¬ 
ucts, particularly block, the addition of hydrated 
lime has frequently been recommended to replace 
part of the proposed quantity of cement in the 
concrete mixture. If hydrated lime is used, it 
should be in the nature of an addition to the mix¬ 
ture, rather than to replace any part of the 


ADMIXTURES 


57 


cement content. Its use was first prompted by a 
desire to secure block of lighter color and to give 
greater density and impermeability to the con¬ 
crete. Its use is of greater benefit to a mixture 
that is poorly graded or low in cement than to 
one that is rich in cement, and so proportioned 
as to fine and coarse aggregates that the resulting 
concrete has the lowest percentage of voids. A 
small quantity of hydrated lime may be added to 
block mixtures for the purpose mentioned, but 
before making this a general practice, experi¬ 
ments and tests should be made to determine the 
quantity permissible without affecting the 
strength of the product required to meet building 
codes or other n£eds. In general, careful propor¬ 
tioning, correct water content, thorough mixing 
and adequate compacting or settling of the con¬ 
crete in the mold should be relied upon to secure 
a dense, watertight block, rather than the use or 
addition of any ingredients other than the usual 
ones of concrete. 

If waterproofing compounds are used, the 
methods of use should be in strict accordance 
with the manufacturer’s recommendations, which 
it will be observed lay particular stress on the 
recognized fundamentals of concrete practice in 
general. 

Economic Value of Admixtures. 

A paper entitled “The Economic Value of Ad¬ 
mixtures” was presented at the 1924 meeting of 
the American Concrete Institute by J. C. Pearson. 
The paper reports the results of an investigation 
conducted at the U. S. Bureau of Standards on 
the effects of admixtures in concrete mixtures. 
Diatomaceous earth (celite), kaolin and hydrated 
lime, and three accelerators of the calcium chlo¬ 
ride type were added in different amounts to the 
several basic concrete mixes. 


58 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


Results of the tests show that the workability 
of a concrete mixture is . about equally benefited 
by 1 part 6f celite, 2 parts of kaolin or 3 parts of 
hydrated lime, such as used in these tests, if the 
consistency as measured by the flow table is kept 
constant. Under the same conditions plain cal¬ 
cium chloride did not improve the workability 
whereas of the two proprietary materials used, one 
was found to give a very appreciable improvement 
and the other quite a marked improvement. 

Powdered admixtures in the proportions used 
did not seriously affect the strength of 1 :2 :4 or 
leaner concretes; in fact the 1 :3 :6 concretes were 
benefited by the admixtures in all cases. Consid¬ 
erable reduction in strength resulted from the 
larger proportions of the admixtures in the 1:1 : 

3 concrete. The chloride admixtures without ex¬ 
ception produced a considerable increase in 
strength. 

As a guide to the “judicious use” of powdered 
admixtures the tests indicate that the amount of 
an admixture to be recommended is an inverse 
function of the richness of the mixture. For the 
materials used in this investigation, the maximum 
percentage of celite to weight of cement is ap¬ 
proximately the number of parts of coarse aggre¬ 
gate (relative to the cement) used in the mixture ; 
the maximum percentage of kaolin is about twice 
the number of parts of coarse aggregate and the 
maximum amount of hydrated lime about three 
times this figure. 

As better and more economical concrete must 
result from the use of anything that improves 
the workability of the mixture provided no del¬ 
eterious effect is also involved, it is felt that 
the data from these tests justify a more general 
consideration of the proper use of admixtures in 
concrete. 


PROPORTIONING MATERIALS 59 
Proportioning Materials. 

\\ hen suitable materials have been selected, the 
next step is to properly proportion them. The 
great variety of concrete products and the many 
uses to which they are put, and the appearance 
and service demanded of them, call for a number 
of different mixtures, although the variations in 
these mixtures are essentially within a narrow 
range. Elsewhere a table is given of recom¬ 
mended mixtures for various classes of products. 

It must be remembered that some concrete 
products, such as small ornamental objects like 



Exhibit Indicating Ways and Means for Making Good 
Concrete—Slump Test Illustrated. 

flower boxes and urns, are never subjected to 
such tests of strength as is demanded of concrete 
in certain portions of buildings, so they need 
have no more strength than necessary to protect 
from possible breakage due to occasional han¬ 
dling. Therefore, the permissible requirement 
of aggregates may be modified with respect to 
certain products as indicated in the table men¬ 
tioned. It is much easier to secure a smooth sur¬ 
face on a concrete flower box or vase if the 








60 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


coarse aggregate is omitted entirely and slight 
excess of cement used with fine aggregate only, 
the sand of course being suitably graded. 

The most economical method of handling and 
proportioning aggregate is by use of overhead 
bins. Proportioning gates may be fitted to the 
bins and proper quantities of aggregate dumped 
directly into mixer or batch cars. A simple pro¬ 
portioning device for aggregates consists of a bot¬ 
tomless measuring box. This box can be placed 
on a wheelbarrow or other conveyance and filled 
level, then lifted off leaving aggregate in the bar- 
row. Dimensions for measuring boxes: 

Box to hold 1^2 cu. ft. 15 by 15 by 
ins. 

Box to hold 2 cu. ft. 15 by 15 by 
15 H in s. 

Box to hold 2p2 cu. ft. 15 by 15 by 
19BJ ins. 

Boxes should be strongly constructed to prevent 
warping or spreading. 

If it is possible to use wheelbarrows with pans 
of such capacity that a full load, struck ofif level 
with sides and end, is correct in quantity such 
practice is recommended. If wheelbarrow pans 
are of irregular shape their cubic capacity can 
be determined by comparing weight of load with 
weight of 1 cu. ft. of the same material. 

Proportioning concrete materials including 
water should be exact if the best results are de-t 
sired. Guessing at quantities of aggregate,. ce¬ 
ment and water should not be tolerated. 

If measuring must be done by wheelbarrows, 
their capacity should be measured and a mark 
made to which they should be filled. A con¬ 
venient way of doing this is to use the familiar 
bottomless measuring box. a table for which is 
given in this chapter. 


WATER 61 

DIMENSIONS FOR BOTTOMLESS MEASURING BOXES 
OF VARIOUS CAPACITIES 

f -Inside measure- N 

Length, Breadth, Height, 


Capacity ins. ins. ins. 

1 cu. ft. 12 12 12 

1% cu. ft. 15 15 9% 

iy 2 cu ft. 15 15 ny 2 

1% cu. ft. 15 15 13y 2 

2 cu. ft. 18 18 10% 

2M cu. ft..-. 18 18 12 

2 V 2 cu. ft. 18 18 13% 

2% cu. ft. 18 18 14% 

2 cu. ft. 18 18 1G 


Water for Concrete. 

The correct amount of water is the foremost 
fundamental in the making of any concrete and 
that means any concrete product is included. A 
mixture containing less water than required to 
produce the complete chemical changes necessary 
to the hardening of the cement can never give 
the best possible concrete. The same is true of 
a mixture containing more water than required 
for the same purpose. 

It is important that the product when re¬ 
moved from the mold or machine be kept uni¬ 
formly moist during the hardening period to fol¬ 
low, for uniform, progressive hardening is not a 
drying process, but a chemical-physical one which 
can best take place only when moisture is present. 

Water used in mixing concrete should be free 
from oils, acids, strong alkalies, vegetable mat¬ 
ter or factory wastes. Usually water fit for 
drinking is suitable for concrete. Water unfit 
for drinking should be analyzed by a competent 
chemical laboratory to determine whether the 
water may be used in mixing or for curing con¬ 
crete. Dirty water or water containing acids or 
alkalies should not be used for sprinkling con¬ 
crete products during the process of curing. It 
is well not to use cold water in concrete during 
freezing weather as the water will abstract heat 
from the aggregate. All the materials including 
the water should be warmed. 













62 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


Due to varying amount of moisture in sand it 
is necessary to slightly alter the quantity of 
water added to different batches in order to ob¬ 
tain uniform consistency. It is therefore im¬ 
practicable to depend entirely upon a measured 
water supply. The best method is to set the 
measured supply about i qt. short of the mini¬ 
mum ever required and add the necessary addi¬ 
tional water, carefully by hand. A practical 
water measure and quick discharge device is an 
ordinary closet flush tank discharging through a 
perforated pipe above the mixer. 

Avoid Excess Mixing Water. 

Excess mixing water weakens concrete. Sloppy 
mixtures sacrifice strength. An addition of 1 pt. 
more water than necessary in a 1-bag batch de¬ 
creases the strength and resistance to wear of 
concrete as much as if 2 or 3 lbs. of cement were 
left out. Concrete hardens because of chemical 
reactions between portland cement and water. 
The quantity of mixing water is just as important 
as the quantity of cement. 

The strength of concrete depends on the ratio 
between the volume of mixing water and the 
volume of cement (W/c). As long as the mixture 
is workable, the smaller the water-cement ratio, 
the stronger the concrete. Thus decreasing the 
quantity of mixing water and increasing the quan¬ 
tity of cement add to the strength of concrete. 
With given proportions, the quantity of mixing 
water should obviously be reduced as far as pos¬ 
sible and still obtain a plastic mixture. 

The accompanying curve shows the effect of the 
quantity of mixing water on the strength of con¬ 
crete. It is an average of the results obtained 
with many mixtures and aggregates. The data on 
which it is based were obtained from several thou¬ 
sand tests at the Structural Materials Research 


WATER 


63 


Laboratory, Lewis Institute, Chicago. Mixtures 
on the right of the maximum strength line were 
plastic; mixtures on the left were not. 

In general construction work, maximum 
strength can seldom be secured, because the mix- 



\ 

if 


r-Proper consistency for mass ^concrete, 

( concrete high wav pavements, etc. 


ip 

§ 

\ 

p 



1 1 1 1 1 1 

- This range of consistency shou/d 


( 




he used far cast products, reinforceo 
concrete, etc,thin members require 
\the areater amount of water 


/ 

/ 

/ 

$ 











§§§ 

/ 

/ 

1 

I 




r-Y* 
u or 

'ith ti 
te-ha 

bis co 
if tht 

nsiste 
' stre 

ocy ’ < 

shout 
is tos7 

: 


1 













I 













i 

With the "s/oppy "concrete some 
times used /h rood work and in 
hui/dina construct/'on. two-thirds 






i 

to three-} 
strength 

r ourths of 
of the Cc 

the / 
mere 

loss it 
•te is 

hie 

iostr 






g 












-v 


$ 

! 

* 

t! 


70 so wo no /zo iso iao iso too no wo wo zoo 

Water Used- Figures are percent- of CLuant/ty driving Maximum Strength* 


Curve Showing Relation of Consistency to Strength of 
Concrete. Normal Consistency Is That Which 
Gives the Greatest Strength. 


ture would be too stiff to be workable, but 70 to 
90 % of the maximum strength can readily be 
obtained. This would be a great increase over 
the usual results, since much of the concrete 
placed today contains 50 to 100 % more water 
than necessary and thus attains only half or even 
only a quarter of its possible strength. 

In the manufacture of concrete products such 
as block and brick, the reverse is often true. 
Where the molds are removed at once the mix¬ 
ture must be extremely stifT and may contain too 
little water for maximum strength. Note the 
mixtures to the left of the maximum strength 














































64 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


line in the curve showing relation of consistency 
to strength of concrete. In such cases stronger 
concrete would be obtained with a more plastic 
mixture, which would require the molds to be left 
in place longer. In general construction, working 
conditions require a plastic mixture. Therefore, 
a safe rule for construction work is to use the 
smallest quantity of mixing water that will give 
a sufficiently plastic mixture for the work in hand. 

Resistance to wear, which is vital in concrete 
pavements, floors and sidewalks, increases with 
compressive strength. Thus, the smaller the quan¬ 
tity of mixing water, the more wear-resistant will 
be the concrete. 

Because of variations in the moisture content, 
absorption and grading of the aggregate, the exact 
amount of water that will be required for a given 
mixture and a given consistency cannot usually be 
specified in advance. The aggregate may contain 
enough water to reduce considerably the amount 
of mixing water necessary; fine sand or small 
pebbles require more mixing water than coarse 
sand or large pebbles. However, approximate 
quantities, applicable to usual conditions, are given 
in the accompanying table : 

TABLE 1. 

Approximate Quantity of Mixing Water Required for 

Concrete. 

Water required 
(gals, per sack of 
cement. 


Mix- 

Volume of Approximate mix as 
aggregate usually expressed. 


Cement. 

after 

mixing. 

Cement. 

Aggregate. 
Fine.Coarse. 

Minimum. 

Maximum 

1 

3 

1 

1 y* 

2% 

5 

5y 2 

1 

4 

1 

1 % 

3 

51/2 

6 

1 

4V 2 

1 

2 

3 

5% 

6% 

6% 

1 

5 

1 

2 

4 

6 

1 

6V2 

1 

2% 

5 

7y 4 

7 % 

1 

7 % 

1 

3 

6 

sy 4 

8 % 


Mixing water has two functions in concrete: 



WATER 


65 


First, to hydrate the 
cement; and, second, 
to produce a work- 
a b 1 e consistency. 
Rich mixtures re¬ 
quire less mixing 
water per sack of 
cement than lean 
ones because the 
smaller volume of 
aggregate requires 
less mixing water to 
attain £ given con¬ 
sistency. 

Slump Test 

Consistency is easi¬ 
ly measured and 
regulated by the 
‘‘slump t e s t. v 
Through its use on 
the job the quantity 
of mixing water 
used in the concrete 
can be controlled 
fairly closely. The 
only apparatus need¬ 
ed is a sheet - metal 
form, shaped like a 
frustum of a cone, 
4 ins. in diameter at 
the top, 8 ins. at the 
bottom and 12 ins. 
high, and a ^-in. 
pointed metal rod 21 
ins. long. This equip¬ 
ment can be made at 
small cost by any tin 
shop. 



Relation Between Consistency and Slump. The Tags Under Each Pile of Concrete Indicates the 
Relative Consistency of the Pile. The Scale at the Side Shows the Slump in Inches. 










Making the Slump Test. After the Mold Is Filled It Is 
Carefully Withdrawn. The Amount of Slump 
Indicates the Consistency. 

uniform results, specifications of the American 
Society for Testing Materials state that each layer 


66 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

Fill this form with the concrete to be tested, 
placing it in layers about 4 ins. deep and working 
it with the pointed metal rod. In order to obtain 




# 








WATER 


67 


should be rodded exactly 30 times. Lift off the 
form immediately and measure the settlement or 
slump of the concrete. 

Concrete having a slump of ^ to 1 in. will 
contain only a little more water than necessary for 
maximum strength, but will be too stiff for most 
construction work. Such concrete is said to have 
a relative consistency of 1.00. Concrete contain¬ 
ing 10% more water is said to have a relative 



Fineness Modulus offhqqrcqaic 
Effect of Grading on Comparative Strength of Concrete. 


consistency of 1.10 and will give a slump of 3 to 
4 ins.; 25% more water gives a relative consis¬ 
tency of 1.25 with a slump of 6 to 7 ins.; 50% 
more water gives a relative consistency of 1.50 
with a slump of 8 to 10 ins. 

Mixing Concrete. 

The thorough mixing of all ingredients is an¬ 
other essential in concrete products manufac¬ 
ture. Theoretically, every particle of aggregate. 



















68 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


must be coated with cement-water mixture, and 
this can only be effected by mixing much more 
thoroughly than is common. By far, too many 
products manufacturers use too little water in 
their processes. Although some block machines 
are so designed as to limit the amount of water 
which can be used in a concrete mixture yet in 
many plants the operators are not using the quan¬ 
tity of water allowable by the machines and in 


<o 

* 

Si 
















A 






L A/7 

* the 

M/. 

'ec/ of 
St re 
X t-4 i 
9 a//<t 

‘ S O' o fO 

ig Co 
Cf Cor 
'urn e 

O c/otj 

nd/fic 

)crete 

/S. 

)D on. 

j 








o 


20 40 60 So /OO /20 

Coner e/e Storec//n Damp sons - days 

Compression Test Data on Cylinders 4 Months Old. 


other plants too much water is ised. Where 
block machines will not permit the proper amount 
of water to be used then the block maker would 
be wise to purchase a machine which will per¬ 
mit the use of concrete having the proper water 
content. 

Where small amounts of concrete are to be 
used, hand mixing is usually resorted to. ‘The 
manufacture of concrete products, however, is a 
























MIXING CONCRETE 


69 


commercial proposition and no plant is justified 
in operating without a machine mixer. Not only 
is the amount of labor in mixing reduced, but 
more thoroughly and uniformly mixed concrete 
is assured. 

Mixing must be thorough because of the 
relatively drier mixtures used in the manufac¬ 
ture of most concrete products. The time of 



Effect of Quantity of Cement on Compressive Strength 

of Concrete. 


mixing must be increased beyond that which 
would ordinarily be proper for concrete de¬ 
posited between forms in usual building con¬ 
struction. The time of mixing has its influence 
on the strength of the resulting concrete, and in - 
creased time of mixing, because of thorough 
incorporation and combination of materials fre¬ 
quently will show that an amount of water, 
which with limited time of mixing appears in- 


















70 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

sufficient, will prove ample. The quantity used 
should be sufficient to produce a medium wet 
mixture. By this is meant one that shows rather 
an excess of water so that when a handful of 
the mixture is firmly squeezed several drops of 
water will be released. No drier consistency of 
mix is now recommended because the so-called 
dry mix, which was usually described as like 
damp earth, resulted in a product lacking 
strength and density. 

There are two types of block made from 
wetter mixes than the average block machine can 
use. One of these block, however, is what is 
commonly known as a “poured block” and is cast 
in molds and allowed to remain in them until the 
concrete has hardened sufficiently to permit re¬ 
moval of the product. The other type is the 
product of a machine operating under high 
pressure. 

Care should be used when selecting a mixer 
because some operate better on relatively wet 
mixtures while others work better with some¬ 
what drier mixtures. 

In the manufacture of concrete block, the 
process of filling the molds is not so simple as 
might first appear. Many of the qualities that 
block, brick, tile, sewer pipe, trimstone and other 
like products will finally possess depend to a 
great extent upon the care displayed during the 
molding or forming process. 

In the manufacture of block, molds may be 
of three kinds, depending upon the position of 
the face of the block. If the face is formed by 
the bottom of the mold, it is known as a “face 
down mold.” If formed by one of the sides of 
the mold, it is known as a “side-face mold,” and 
if formed by the cover of the mold, it is a 
“face-up mold.” 

The method of depositing material in the 


MIXING CONCRETE 


71 


mold will vary somewhat with the kind of mold 
employed. If a side-face mold is used, the con¬ 
crete is placed a little at a time, filling with some 
care into the corners and around the cores and 
tamping each layer thoroughly so that block will 
be of like density throughout. 

If the block is to be faced with a material 
different from that used in the body, a thin 
partition or septum is sometimes employed, and 
the face matter is placed between this partition 
or septum and the face-plate, and the coarse 
material for the body of block or backing is 
placed and tamped while the septum is gradually 
withdrawn. 

The mixing of fine facing is not as simple a 
process as the mixing ot concrete for the body 
or backing of the block. The operation involves 
the careful screening of the selected sand, mar¬ 
ble dust or other aggregate used, and the incor¬ 
poration of these with the cement, together with 
such coloring matter as is to be employed. All 
materials of the facing mixture should first be 
very thoroughly mixed while dry and then thor¬ 
oughly mixed while the water is being added. 
It is unnecessary to make the facing mixture 
quite as wet $s that of the body of the block. 
However, what would be considered as a dry 
mixture should be avoided. 

Facing the body mixtures should be very 
nearly of the same consistency. The only reason 
why the facing mixture may contain less water 
is because surplus water from the .backing will 
penetrate the face by capillary attraction before 
the hardening process sets up or has advanced 
very far. 

Facings ordinarily are made V 2 to 1 in. thick 
and care should be taken to secure a good bond 
between the facing and the body of the block, 
brick or trimstone, whichever product is being 


72 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


made. Such union will not result if there is too 
much difference in the consistency of the two 
mixtures. 

Where coloring matter is used, it is very nec¬ 
essary that the same quantity of water be used in 
each batch and the time of mixing be identical 
for each batch, otherwise there will be variations 
in the shade of color of the finished product. 

It has been reported that a few manufacturers 
of concrete block machinery have stated that it 
is possible to get more blocks per sack of cement 
from their machines than from others. Unless 
such statements are based on the fact that their 
block is less in volume and therefore more eco¬ 
nomical of material such statements are without 
foundation. Concrete block equal in all other 
respects will have equal strength regardless of 
make of machine on which they are made. 
Roughly, the number of blocks obtainable per 

400 

sack of cement from any machine =-for 

Weight 

685 

113 mix cement and sand or -- for 1 : 2^4 14 

Weight 

mix using cement, sand and coarse aggregate. 

Table of Concrete Mixtures for Manufac¬ 
ture of Various Kinds of Concrete 
Products. 

Recommendations as to concrete mixtures to 
be used for various classes of concrete products 
can at best be mostly approximations. Variations 
in proportions of several ingredients in such mix¬ 
tures will from time to time have to be made in 
order to produce two most desired ends— 
strength and density. 

Difference in grading of aggregate, both 
fine and coarse, make it advisable frequently to 




MIXTURES 


73 


test materials being used with a view to deter¬ 
mining percentage of voids contained in any vol¬ 
ume of aggregates, so that cement ratio to sand 
and sand ratio to coarse aggregate can be ad¬ 
justed as the materials being used indicate is nec¬ 
essary. 

The mixtures recommended in the following 
table therefore may be susceptible to minor 
changes for the reasons before suggested: 

I :iy 2 \2y 2 MIXTURE FOR 

Reinforced concrete pressure pipe, 
i :2 13 MIXTURE FOR 

Fence posts, 

Sills and lintels without mortar surface. 
Reinforced concrete lumber and similar 
products. 

I :2l4 :4 MIXTURE FOR 

Backing of concrete block or backing of 
other products not required to have greater 
strength than concrete block when a richer 
cement-sand mortar is used as facing. 

[ \2]/ 2 \2 MIXTURE FOR 

Concrete silo stave made after what is 
known as the wet process. 

I !3 MIXTURE FOR 

Concrete block when coarse aggregate is not 
used. 

Concrete brick. 

Concrete building tile. 

Burial vaults, facing block and similar con¬ 
crete products. In such cases the maximum 
size of aggregates used should be fixed by 
the limitations placed on the method of final 
finishing of surface to secure the surface 
texture desired. 

Concrete drain tile and pipe when coarse ag¬ 
gregate is not used. 


74 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


Floor tile. 

Ornamental concrete products. 

In such cases the coarsest aggregate should 
be limited by that which will pass through 
a No. 8 screen (one having 8 meshes to the 
linear inch). 

i \ 2 y 2 Mixture for 

Fence posts when coarse aggregate is not 
used. 

Roofing tile, 
i :2 Mixture for 

Facing block and similar concrete products. 
In such cases the maximum size of aggre¬ 
gates used should be fixed by the limitations 
placed on the method of final finishing of 
surface to secure the surface texture de¬ 
sired. 

It should be remembered that a general rule 
of concrete construction is that the maximum 
size of aggregates used should in general be no 
greater than from one-third to one-half the con¬ 
crete section in which used. Even this general 
rule is subject to modification, because some 
products like sewer pipe are reinforced, and ne¬ 
cessity compels a smaller maximum size of 
coarse aggregate in order that concrete may be 
thoroughly consolidated in forms or molds and 
ground reinforcement. 


CHAPTER VII. 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS PLANT LAY- 
OUT AND EQUIPMENT. 

Many manufacturers of concrete products 
confine their activities to making one or two 
products when they could very profitably with 
the same plant layout, and but little additional 
equipment, manufacture several allied products 



Transverse Cross Section of Plant A Through Curing 
Rooms and End Elevation of the Main Building. 


for which a market already exists or very readily 
could be developed. 

One of the first topics to be given considera¬ 
tion in establishing a products plant is the possi¬ 
bility of developing a good market for the output. 

The next is the availability of raw materials 
such as sand and pebbles or broken stone, which 
form the greater bulk of materials needed in 
products manufacture. 










































































































76 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 



Second Floor Plan of Plant A Showing Space Alloted 
for Storage of Materials Above the Machine Room. 





























































































PLANT LAYOUT 77 

L he next thought should be given to equipping 
the plant with the best type of equipment for the 
products to be manufactured and such adjuncts 
to the plant as will render the equipment most 
effective. 

The most suitable location for any plant can 



Side Elevation of Plant A Showing Overhead Aggregate 
Bunkers Arranged to Take Materials From a 
Clam-Shell Bucket. 


be determined only after due consideration has 
been given to the possible market and the avail¬ 
ability of materials. If the plant is intended to 
have a relatively large capacity it will usually be 
found most economical to choose a location near 
the source a£ aggregate supply, as this is the 
most weighty and bulky of the materials to be 
provided. It is much better to pay freight rates 
on finished products than on unmanufactured 
































































































































78 


CONCRETE PRODJCTS 


raw materials. Availability of materials is based 
upon the assumption that they can be obtained 
locally or readily secured by rail or motor truck 
transportation. If possible to locate a plant at 
or near the site of aggregate supply, transporta- 



3£C T /CW * t /7,/7 



, 5 FCT/ON BB 

Transverse Sections of Plant A Showing Footings. Ma¬ 
chine Foundations, Arrangement of Machinery 
• and Storage for Materials. 


tion on raw materials is largely eliminated. 
Usually it is not advisable to locate a plant mid¬ 
way between source of raw materials and the 
center of the selling market, as the combined 
freight rates on raw materials and finished prod- 

















































































































PLANT LAYOUT 


79 


ucts will probably be greater than where the 
plant is located either at the source of raw mate¬ 
rial or immediately at the market. 

Various ideas are given as suggestions for 
layouts of plants for the manufacture of several 




L ON6/ TL/OW'*' — C.l 


Side Elevation and Longitudinal Section of Plant A 
signed to Have an Output of from 1500 to 30C0 

Block a Day. 


De¬ 


products. Each intending manufacturer will find 
that he has some individual requirements gov¬ 
erned by location or other conditions which must 
be met, so no one plan can be considered as suited 
to every individual need without some minor 
changes. Good light should be a prime consid¬ 
eration. Conveniences such as provision for 
minimum handling of materials are important. 
If mixed concrete can be spouted directly to 
machines and molds from the mixer plant, con- 





























































































































80 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

siderable handling will be avoided. Ample space 
should be provided so that materials and prod¬ 
ucts can be handled with ease and dispatch. 

The site chosen should be selected with par¬ 
ticular reference for proper expansion of the 
business to several times that originally planned. 
In general, a plant should consist of receiving 
facilities, manufacturing room, curing rooms, 
storage space and shipping facilities. 

Materials used in the order of volume are 
aggregate, cement, water, fuel and power. Ag- 



Detail of Plant A Showing Transfer Tracks in Front of 
Curing Rooms or Tunnels. 


gregates may be received in some form of horse- 
drawn or motor trucks or in cars or barges. The- 
method of unloading will therefore depend upon 
the method of transportation. At the present 
time it is customary to dump truckloads of 
aggregate over a grizzly, through which the 
aggregate will drop into'a hopper feeding into a 
























































































PLANT LAYOUT 


81 


bucket elevator, which carries the aggregate to 
bins, preferably located so that material may be 
discharged to the mixers by gravity or by con¬ 
veyors operated by power. 

o 



V) 

First Floor Plan of Plant A Showing the General Layout 
of the Plant and Equipment. 












































































































82 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 



Plan of Concrete Block Plant Supplied With Aggregate 
from a Gravel Washer Having a Capacity of 100 
Tons per 10-Hour Day. 



Plan of a Simply Arranged Plant Equipped for Steam 
Curing Concrete Block. 



































































PLANT LAYOUT 83 

If material is received in hopper-bottomed 
cars, a receiving pit should be built under the 
railroad track so cars may be unloaded by grav- 



Plan of a Compactly Arranged Block Plant on a Small 
Plot of Land Served by a Spur Track. 


ity. The pit may have the same type of bucket 
conveyor as would be used in connection with a 
bin. A power crane with clamshell bucket facili¬ 
tates quick and economical unloading of cars. 

Enough space should be provided to store ma¬ 
terials so that the plant can be kept in oper¬ 
ation over an estimated period of nondelivery of 
materials. This may range from a week during 
the open season to several weeks or months dur¬ 
ing the winter, when weather or car shortage 
may make deliveries uncertain and irregular. 

The plant should be designed in such a way 
that the least travel will be necessary in handling 
raw materials and finished products. In general, 
raw materials should be received either at one 




















































84 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


end or side of the plant, and travel in the short¬ 
est direct line from the storage bins through 
mixers, machines, curing rooms, storage yards, 
and thence to cars or trucks for delivery. 



and for More Equipment. 



Diagram Showing Straight Line Flow of Materials from 
Car or Motor Truck to the Curing Room. 































































































































PLANT LAYOUT 


85 

Machines should be placed in such relation 
to each other that materials may be conveyed 
from the storage bins to the mixer with the least 
labor and by the simplest practical system of 
handling. Ordinarily materials are conveyed to 
the mixer by gravity or by mechanical equip- 



Plan of a Large Plant Equipped With Six Block Machines 
and Space Provided for Additional Machines. 


ment. Mixed concrete may be delivered by 
gravity or mechanical means to the molds or 
machines. 

Finished products should be delivered to stor¬ 
age rooms either on racks, which may be 
handled by lift trucks, or by industrial cars on 
narrow gage tracks. Cured products should be 
conveyed from curing rooms to the storage yards 
or storage rooms in similar manner. 

In selecting the machines for a products plant, 
it is well to bear in mind that knowledge 
today of what constitutes good concrete block, 
brick, tile, sewer pipe or other concrete products 
is more generally disseminated than a few years 



















































































































86 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


ago. Therefore machines should be chosen that 
will permit of methods of manufacture, particu¬ 
larly the use of concrete consistencies that wi r 
result in products of the high standard demanded 
by present-day specifications. A block machine 



Plan of Plant to Mak« Concrete Sewer Pipe and Drain 
Tile. Bins Provided for All Materials. 





























































































































































PLANT LAYOUT 


87 


for example, should be chosen that will permit 
the use of just as wet a mix as possible, without 
causing slump of the product when removed 
from the mold. 

If the concrete products industry is to be 
properly developed, then it is necessary to get 
away from some old style practices and old types 
of machines. For example, the face-plates re¬ 
sponsible for the imitation rock faced block 
should be scrapped. 

Since facing mixtures are used largely to give 
proper finish to block and brick, it is neces¬ 
sary also to select a type of machine that will 
permit facing the product with selected mixtures 
if faced products ! are to be made. It may, in 
fact, be necessary to have variations in types of 
machines for the same product so that, for ex¬ 
ample. a block having a certain type of air space 
can be manufactured to meet a popular demand 
alreadv created. 

Block machines must be chosen so that block 
can be made to conform to any required thick¬ 
ness of wall. There must always be provision 
for making reasonable adjustment as to the 
height of courses in order to secure the pleasing 
effect of an alternation of wide and narrow 
courses in the wall, as well as to provide for a 
course of unusual height when certain building 
construction demands it. There must be ad¬ 
justability of machine as to length of .block so 
that units can be made to fit any points of an 
architectural plan. 

The ease with which the mold on most types of 
block machines can be filled depends largely 
upon the hopper used and the arrangement of 
the cores in the mold. The very thin faced sec¬ 
tion with back and cores very close together will 
naturally make filling more difficult and slower. 
It will also call for greater care in making and 


88 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 



Plan and Elevations of Plant Designed to Manufacture 
Portland Cement Stuccos Ready for Mixing With 

Water. 










































































PLANT LAYOUT 


89 


handling the block and make it impossible to use 
coarse aggregate. This last consideration is per¬ 
haps the most important one in respect to filling 
the molds. 

A machine should provide in every section 
of the mold sufficient space to permit working 
the largest size aggregate called for in the speci¬ 
fication governing the product being made. The 
type of machine should be such that the concrete 
mixture can be compacted to greatest density 
with greatest ease and certainty. If hand tamp¬ 
ing is done, the density is not dependent upon 
the type of machine, but if the block is made by 
pressure, it is a matter of adjustment and ma¬ 
chinery. 

In the manufacture of block by the poured 
process, good results depend upon the amount 
of water used, making certain that the quantity 
is neither too little nor too great, so it will be 
seen that the process of manufacture to be used 
can be successfully carried out only when the 
machinery and equipment is most readily adapt¬ 
able to that process. 

Another point of considerable importance when 
selecting a block machine is to choose one 
from which the block can easily be withdrawn 
from the mold. Care must be taken not to buy 
a machine that is likely to ofter difficulties in 
removing block from the mold, because such a 
machine will be responsible for a large number 
of broken or damaged block. 

Heretofore the rapidity of manufacture has 
been controlled by most makers, more by regu¬ 
lating the consistency of the mix than by de¬ 
pending on, or utilizing to fullest possibilities, 
special features of the machine and arranging 
the consistency of the mixture so that it would 
produce a block of recognized quality. The 
rapidity of any machine depends upon the 


90 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 



































































































































































































PLANT LAYOUT 


91 


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Plan of a Plant Designed to Manufacture Ornamental Concrete Products of Many Types. 
































92 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 











































































PLANT LAYOUT 


93 


mechanical details of operation that have been 
designed and built into it and on the crew which 
is operating it. The machine chosen should be 
one that is mechanically perfect, and it should 



Plan and Elevations of a 75-Ton Portland Cement Stucco 
Plant One of Which Should Be in Every Large City. 



























































































































94 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 



Plan of a Two-Machine Plant Arranged to Take Aggre¬ 
gate from Motor Trucks. 


























































































PLANT LAYOUT 


95 


always be used with as wet a mixture as possible 
and not speeded up for output in any way to 
sacrifice quality of product. 

In general, the remarks that have been made 
concerning block machines apply to all other ma¬ 
chines intended for the manufacture of concrete 
products. Within certain limits, tile making 
machines are adaptable for manufacturing vari¬ 
ous sizes by changing attachments. In general, 
those machines having the greatest range of such 
adaptability are to be preferred. 

In the manufacture of products requiring 
molds, types of molds should be chosen that are 
rigidly constructed and that give evidence of 
being solid enough to withstand long and hard 
usage under reasonable care. Molds for sewer 
pipe, architectural trimstone and all ornamental 
products in general should be of a type that can 
readily be taken off the molded product without 
possibility of injuring it. 

Machinery throughout the plant may include 
conveyors, boilers, various power units, such as 
gas engines, steam engines or electric motors, 
industrial cars, etc. Elimination of belting and 
shafting is advisable and individual motor drives 
should be used if possible. Such equipment per¬ 
mits safer plant operation and also makes oper¬ 
ation more flexible in that it is possible to shut 
down for such time as may be necessary any 
machines which are not to be operated. 

There are many types of concrete mixers 
now on the market. One may be chosen from 
among the many available with special reference 
to the consistency of concrete mixture that is to 
be used for the particular products being manu¬ 
factured. 

The mixers should have ample capacity to 
provide concrete for all of the machines to be 
operated. Certain arrangements of interior vanes 


96 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


or blades in different mixers make one type more 
suited to a wet or to a dry mixture than some 
other type. Mixers should be mounted on sub¬ 
stantial concrete foundations, as in this way they 
operate more smoothly and as a result have a 
longer useful life. 

It will be found advantageous to place ma¬ 
terial bins, such as those for cement, sand and 
gravel, at such an elevation that the materials 
can be discharged from them by gravity, and if 
necessary, then transported to the mixer by 
bucket and belt conveyors or similar means. 

Narrow-gage tracks laid to true line and grade 
should serve the plant and be fitted with neces¬ 
sary switches or transfer tables, thus making 
it possible to move finished products from ma¬ 
chine to curing chambers, and from curing cham¬ 
bers to storage yard, with the least amount of 
hand labor. 

Where steam curing is used, boilers should be 
of such size and capacity as will furnish the 
required amount of steam without overloading. 
The steam capacity should be sufficient to cure 
the products and heat the building. In general, 
a small curing room should be provided for 
concrete trimstone and other special units. Par¬ 
ticularly should steam capacity be sufficient to 
enable continuous operation throughout the year. 
No plant is properly equipped unless able to 
manufacture in winter the same as in summer. 
For winter manufacturing processes it is neces¬ 
sary to arrange facilities to heat water and aggre¬ 
gates. Water can readily be heated by steam 
from the boiler plant, while various forms of 
heating devices are easily improvised for heating 
the sand and coarse aggregate. In fact, if these 
are stored in bins, as they should be, it is an easy 
matter to equip such bins with coils of per¬ 
forated pipe and discharge steam into the piles, 



PLANT LAYOUT 97 

thus warming materials to the required temper¬ 
ature. During winter, heating facilities should 
be such as to enable keeping the workrooms at a 
temperature not lower than 60 degs. F. 

In the manufacture of concrete products equip¬ 
ment will range from simple molds, machines 
and tools to the same class of equipment as may 


Barrett-Craven Rubber Tired Lift Truck About to Pick 
Up a Loaded Rack of Building Tile. 

be used in a large foundry or on a large con¬ 
tract for concrete construction. 

Today hand mixed concrete is hardly ever men¬ 
tioned due to the fact that concrete machine mix¬ 
ers may be obtained in sizes ranging from a part 
bag batch to several cubic yards to a batch. Con¬ 
veying concrete may range in carrying from 
mixer in buckets to transporting by overhead 
cranes, traveling cranes on track or locomotive 
cranes. Machines may range from a small block 













98 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


or brick machine of small capacity to large ma¬ 
chines turning out thousands of brick, block or 
tile every day. Finished products may be car¬ 
ried by hand or conveyed by belt conveyors, grav¬ 
ity conveyors, industrial railways, traveling 
cranes overhead or lift trucks working on the 
ground level. Lift trucks are proving very satis¬ 
factory for moving green and cured concrete 
products. They require a smooth floor, preferably 
a concrete floor. 

It should be considered that the object of using 



Barrett-Craven Rubber Tired Lift Truck Being With¬ 
drawn from a Rack o fConcrete Block. 


any equipment is to obtain service at a lower 
cost than by any other method and therefore it 
would be foolish to do by manual labor what 
could be accomplished by the aid of modern 
equipment. A shortage of labor or the ineffi¬ 
ciency of labor can be reduced and in most cases 
eliminated by machinery. A machine's wages 
consist of the interest on the investment plus de¬ 
preciation plus repairs and renewal of parts, plus 
lubrication and cost of power. All equipment 
should be properly housed so as to reduce depreci¬ 
ation and repairs. 

As in the selection and use of materials so 







PLANT LAYOUT 


99 


must care and thought be used in the selection of 
equipment for a concrete products plant. The 
plant as a whole must be considered and not a 
few of the machines only. In planning the equip¬ 
ment layout the relation of the machines to each 
other and their respective operations should be 
carefully studied. A careful reading of the trade 
papers dealing with concrete products will give 
the reader news regarding equipment. Every is¬ 
sue of these papers should be read by the concrete 



Lewis-Shepard Jack Lift Truck Handling Concrete Block. 


products plant operator or the one who expects 
to make concrete products. It is impossible in a 
book such as this to give detailed information re¬ 
garding every piece of equipment or to discuss 
the properties or merits of equipment. The trade 
press and the manufacturers catalogs will fur¬ 
nish much information of value to prospective 
buyers of equipment. 











CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


100 

Employment of an engineer to design the plant 
layout is advisable and the money spent for this 
purpose will be saved many times as economy in 
operation depends on the equipment selected and 
the general layout of the plant. This refers 
particularly to plants of more than small capacity. 



Cowan Transveyors Used to Move Green and Cured 

Products. 


Where a plant is started with a single machine 
or two it is not necessary always to employ an 
engineer to plan the layout but where a number 
of machines are to be set up and the most im¬ 
proved methods of handling raw materials and 
finished products are to be used then experience 
is necessary and the employment of a qualified 
engineer is advisable. It is not necessary that 
one should have a knowledge of engineering alone 














PLANT LAYOUT 


101 


blit a knowledge of concrete machinery and manu¬ 
facturing processes must be possessed by the plant 
designer. 

Plant Plans. 

Elsewhere in this book are plans of plants 
showing the layout of machinery, yards and 



Steubing Lift Trucks Carrying Concrete Roof Tile. 


curing rooms. These plans should be studied with 
a view to applying the correct principles in solv¬ 
ing any particular plant layout. It is rarely that 
any two plants are duplicates and it is not ex¬ 
pected that a duplication of a plan* shown herein 
will solve all of the problems connected with 
establishing a new plant. 












CHAPTER VIII. 


TYPES OF BLOCK MACHINES. 

Some types of block machines are hand op¬ 
erated, some may be operated either by hand or 
power, while some are operated by power exclu¬ 
sively. In exclusive power operated machines 
there is generally a battery of tampers to com¬ 
pact the concrete in the mold. 

In some types of machines the facing mixture 
can be placed without the use of the septum 



Concrete Brick Two Story Apartment House. 


mentioned, it. being the practice to spread the 
richer facing material upon the face-plate. Facing 
and back are then thoroughly united during the 
process of tamping the concrete as the remainder 
of the mold is filled. 

It is not the purpose of this book to go into 
details relative to the particular product of any 
particular manufacturer, nor is it to be taken that 
mention of one manufacturer or product is for 
the purpose of singling this particular product or 













TYPES OF BLOCK MACHINES 103 

piece of equipment out for special attention. 
Direct mention is made throughout this book 
only to assist clearness of any comparisons. It 
is suggested that those interested secure fuller 
information in the form of catalogs and by cor¬ 
respondence from the manufacturers whose 



A Good Specimen of Hydro-Stone Construction Where as 
Much Attention Was Paid to Basement Entrances 
as to Other Parts of the Building. 


names and addresses are contained in the various 
lists published throughout the book. All such 
references have been made impartially and with¬ 
out any consideration other than making this 
compilation a source of valuable information. 

Typical of the face-down machines is the 
Ideal concrete block machine. Particular advan¬ 
tages claimed by the manufacturers of the Ideal 




















104 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


concrete block machines are the ease with which 
faced block may be molded, easy horizontal re¬ 
moval of cores, general simplicity and rapidity of 
operation, economy of material because of the 
shape of the cores used, and the care given to 
perfecting mechanical details of the machines. 
The Ideal machine is typical of the class of ma¬ 
chines manufacturing “cored block.” 

Another type of block is manufactured by 
using the Anchor concrete block machine. The 
distinctive features of this block are that it con¬ 
sists of two units joined by steel ties or anchors. 
In the process of molding the two parts of the 
block which the ties hold together, the resulting 
air space in the wall built of it is continuous and 
the fullest measure of insulation in the construc¬ 
tion is thereby secured. 

The product of the Helm press is typical of 
solid block, two of which are used to form a wall 
with a continuous air space. The practice is to 
lay metal wall ties in the joints to tie the two parts 
of the wall together. Such ties have been used 
for 55 years without deterioration. In this age 
of improved iron and steel manufacture it is pos¬ 
sible to get pure iron wall ties such as are made 
of Armco ingot iron. These ties should last in¬ 
definitely. The excellent condition of the wall 
ties after 55 years of service in a concrete block 
two-piece wall, indicates that the air space be¬ 
tween the solid block was dry. 

Usually when the block machine used is a 
type of press, the entire mold is filled before 
pressure is applied, but it is always well to partly 
fill the form or mold, slightly compacting this 
concrete before the remaining quantity necessary 
to fill it is added. The presses are designed to 
exert sufficient pressure to bring the particles of 
the mass into intimate contact and to expel the 
air from the block through numerous vent holes 


TYPES OF BLOCK MACHINES 105 

provided in the mold. It is customary in pres¬ 
sure machines to have the face of the top of the 
mold as it is filled so that the application of 
.facing mixture involves striking out from the top 
of the mold *4 in. of the coarse material which 
is replaced by facing mixture before final pres¬ 
sure is applied. There are, however, types of 
machines in which the operation is reversed and 
the facing mixture deposited in the bottom of 
the mold, in which case the block is discharged 
with its face on the side. 

A type of building unit or block known as 
"Hydro-stone” is made by the Hydro-stone ma- 



Dwelling and Garage Built of Concrete Brick. 


chine. This can be either hand or power oper¬ 
ated. In the latter case, an electric motor or gas 
or steam engine may be used, belted to a pulley 
driving a worm gear. The Hydro-stone machine 
consists essentially of a substantial frame sup¬ 
porting the concrete receiving board, a mold box 
with provisions for rotating the mold box into 





106 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

several necessary positions and means of apply¬ 
ing pressure to the concrete after it has been 
placed in the mold. 

The Hydro-stone machine, like many other- 
types of block and brick making machines, is 
adaptable to the manufacture of various kinds of 
ornamental cast stone used for building trim, etc. 
It also probably permits use of a wetter mix than 
any other type of pressure machine in operation. 
It is said to apply a pressure of 150,000 lbs., 
which thus permits the use of a concrete mixture 
containing larger aggregate than ordinarily used 
in block manufacture. An almost quaky mix¬ 
ture can be used, and because of the extreme 
pressure exerted, it is an ideal outfit for faced 
block. The shape of the Hydro-stone units is 
such that the resulting wall incorporates a con- 
tinuous horizontal and vertical air space, the 
inside and outside faces having no direct contact. 
Block can be made to build single or double 
walls, varying up to 17 ins. thick for the double 
wall. 

Several machines are now on the market de¬ 
signed to make units similar to the Hydro-stone 
units. One of these machines uses an hydraulic 
pulsating pressure which it is claimed results in 
forcing out of the concrete the entrapped air and 
surplus water. 

To obtain thorough and uniform tamping of 
products, substantial machine tampers are rec¬ 
ommended. Tamping of concrete is simply a 
matter of power applied. Authorities have found 
on investigation that the best laborer can not 
exert more than 1/5 hp. on intermittent work 
nor more than 1/7 to 1/10 hp. continuously. In 
order to be liberal, however, figure on the high¬ 
est possible labor output, say 1/5 hp. 

Labor at 50 cts. per hour equals $2.50 per 
hp. hr. for hand tamping. 


107 


TYPES OF BLOCK MACHINES 

Electric current or other mechanical power 
seldom costs more than io cts. per hp. hr. Figur¬ 
ing 50% loss in friction, (a very high figure) 
equals 20 cts. per hp. hr. for mechanical tamping. 
It is obvious that such mechanical equipment 
will quickly pay for itself and earn a substan¬ 
tial profit on the investment. 

The claim that a man must be employed to 
operate the tamper does not affect the case as 
the increased output is unquestionably greater 
than could be obtained by putting on an addi¬ 
tional laborer for hand tamping. 

What is known as the slush or poured process 
of making concrete block, employs a gang mold 
which uses a very wet mix. A battery of molds 
is arranged on a car, and after filling with con¬ 
crete and puddling it in the molds, the car is 
moved to some convenient place to remain until 
the concrete has hardened enough to run the car 
with its load into a steam curing chamber. Thor¬ 
ough settling of the concrete in the molds is fur¬ 
ther aided by vibrating the mold. The poured 
process makes excellent block of unusual density 
and strength, providing the concrete mixture has 
been properly proportioned and care is taken to 
use the least amount of water necessary to work 
the concrete so as to completely fill the molds. In 
a few plants using the poured process, too much 
water is used evidently to assist the concrete to 
flow to place, with but little work required from 
the workmen. The concrete should be sufficiently 
stiff or plastic as to require aid from the work¬ 
men to cause the concrete to completely fill the 
molds. If vibration is not employed the concrete 
should be puddled or otherwise tamped to get the 
best results. 


CHAPTER IX. 


TYPES OF BLOCK. 

The accepted shape of concrete block is such 
that the exposed surface is a rectangle. Block 
may or may not extend through the wall. In 
every case, provision is made for an air space in 
the wall and the means by which this is accom- 



Colosimo Interlocking Block Laid Up in a Section of Wall 
to Show the Interlocking Feature. 


plished varies widely and in many cases is cov¬ 
ered by a variety of patents. 

Block that extend through the wall are termed 
“one-piece” block. The outer part is called the 
“face section/’ the inner part the “back section,” 
and the partitions that unite the face section to 
the back one are called “webs” or “withes.” All 
such block are correctly termed “hollow block.” 



















TYPES OF BLOCK 


109 


In most types of hollow block, space in one 
block connects with those in the succeeding and 
preceding courses, forming a continuous air 
space from the top to the bottom of the wall. 
Different types of one-piece block may differ 
somewhat from this standard. In hollow block 
the number of webs each block has may vary 
from two to four or more. 

Block in which the face section and back con¬ 
stitute two separate parts, are known as ‘‘two- 
piece” block. The walls made of these block 
may be spoken of as two-piece walls. These 



Catch Basin and Manhole Block Laid With Interlocking 
Grooved Vertical Joint. 


block are found in great variety of form and 
some types are covered by patents. The more 
common forms are designated as T-shape, 
L-shape and U-shape because their general out¬ 
lines conform to the shape of these letters. 

The size of concrete block, in respect to the 
distance between the face section and back, is 
variable, because width is regulated by required 
thickness of wall. This dimension can be changed 
by lengthening or shortening the connecting 
webs. It is customary, however, in wider walls 











110 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


to make some variation in the thickness of the 
face section and the back, as in this way a larger 
bearing surface is afforded. In addition, better 
construction is secured by increased resistance to 
torsion or unequal expansion in case of excessive 
heating of one side of the wall. On the other 
hand, the decrease in thickness of face section 
and the back in narrow walls carrying light 
weight not only serves to increase the insulation 



A Cottage Built of Colosimo Interlocking Block With 

« Sandstone Finish. 


afforded bv the interior air space, but also ac¬ 
complishes some saving of material. 

The size of block, in respect to length and 
height, is determined by three factors: 

1. Facility in the handling and laying. 

2. Preservation of the unit system. 

3. Appearance in the completed wall. 

With the growth and popularity of concrete 
block, manufacturers of machinery for making 
them have found it necessary to provide a greater 
range of adjustability. Yet there still remains 
among the many machines offered so wide a dif¬ 
ference as to size that no one recognized standard 






TYPES OF BLOCK 


111 


can be said to exist. The general tendency has 
been to make as large block as possible in order 
to reduce the manufacturing cost per square foot 
of wall. This practice finally reached a point 
where the additional labor of handling, hoisting 
and laying more than offset the saving in mold¬ 
ing. Used in wider walls and higher buildings, 
this extra expense in handling of large block be¬ 
comes more and more burdensome. Consequent 
ly, block 30 and 32 ins. which once were com¬ 
mon, are now infrequent, while block 24, 20 and 
even 16 ins. long are gaining in favor. 

The height and length should be determined 
by adherence to a system of units and the various 
heights should be fixed with a view to helping 
the designer to determine the most desirable dis¬ 
tance horizontally between doors and windows 
to corners, and also the most desirable widths of 
door and window openings. A tabulation of 
sizes of block and structural tile as now manu¬ 
factured, and a table showing relation between 
number of courses of concrete block and tile, and 
the height of wall formed by units of different 
sizes are given and will help the manufacturer to 
standardize his output with respect to dimen¬ 
sions. Another table shows the number of block 
required for wall sections of various lengths. A 
block listed as 8 ins. wide, 7^6 ins. high and 
15 y 6 ins. long is in practice referred to as an 
8 by 8 by 16-in. block. Two dimensions are pur¬ 
posely made scant to allow for the mortar joint 
which, when added to length and height, pro¬ 
duces a unit of the full computed measure. 

The concrete products manufacturer must 
be prepared to furnish corner block, joist block, 
chimney block, sills, lintels and other special 
shapes, so as to make it possible for the architect 
and builders to complete a building. Nothing 
detracts more from the appearance of a struc- 


112 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


ture than poorly made and improperly fitted 
building trim. 

There is still considerable opportunity to de¬ 
velop and make operative a more nearly com¬ 
plete standardization of block sizes. The end to 
be sought should be approached with a view to 
securing geometrical symmetry, and at present 
the variation in sizes of the so-called standard 



Special Jamb Block of Interlocking Type for Door and 

Window Openings. 

concrete block does not permit all that could be 
desired of this building unit. 

1 he weight of a concrete block is determined 
by its composition, size and percentage of air 
space. The composition cannot be varied for 
the sake of reducing the weight, as that is regu¬ 
lated by more important considerations. The 
size and proportion of solid matter, however, 
may be reduced to decrease the weight. 

W eight is important because of the cost of 
placing and because of the load on the lower 
courses in a building and on the foundation. A 













113 


TYPES OF BLOCK 

reduction in size, unless it is a reduction in the 
width of the wall, cannot affect the load, but it 
does affect the handling cost, while an increased 
air space affects both. On account of lack of 
established standards in size, it is difficult to give 
figures that will apply to weight of block made 
on different machines. In general, the aim should 
be to keep the weight low enough in one-piece 
block so that two men can handle a block on the 
wall and in two-piece block so that one man can 
handle a block without assistance. When this 
rule is exceeded it usually means paying an 
extra man, who necessarily is idle half of his 
time. 

The air space in concrete block is the indis¬ 
pensable characteristic of the unit. It is this 
space which, when the units are laid up in the 
wall, builds insulation into the wall, thus pre¬ 
venting sudden changes of outside temperature 
from being communicated to the inside of the 
structure. In other words, a hollow wall build¬ 
ing, such as secured from block construction, is 
easy to heat in winter and cooler than the ordi¬ 
nary structure in summer. The hollow wall also 
prevents the passage of moisture from outer to 
inner wall through a medium that is frequently 
more porous than it should be. The hollow wall 
also deadens against transmission of sound. 

There has been a good deal of argument 
about the percentage of air space permissible in 
concrete block or concrete block walls. So long 
as the required strength is obtained from the 
concrete block, there is little preference as to the 
form of air space from the standpoint of utility 
of the block. In almost all cases the volume of 
air space is about one-third the volume of the 
block, so the quantity of concrete is approxi¬ 
mately the same in all block. The advantage of 
one type of air space over another, if there be 


114 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


any advantage, is principally a mechanical one 
that is, it may be more convenient to provide one 
type of air space than another because of 
mechanical reasons which must be met by the 
manufacturers of block making machinery. 

In order to provide for the unequal stresses 
that the front and back of a one-piece block may 
be subjected to and to preserve symmetrical pro¬ 
portions between the face section, the back and 
the several connecting webs, it is difficult to pro¬ 
vide an air space exceeding 40% of the volume 
of the block measured by its exterior dimen¬ 
sions. It has been found that, assuming all con¬ 
crete block are made of good concrete, the com¬ 
pressive strength of block (60% of the bearing 
surface being solid) is more than sufficient. In 
a wall built of two-piece block, the air space is 
not controlled by the proportions of the block, 
consequently it is possible in a two-piece wall to 
get an air space according to the width of the 
wall from a minimum up to as high as 55%. 
However, the percentage of air space is often 
governed by building code regulations. In gen¬ 
eral, 335 < 3 % is a fair average. 

There are a number of concrete block being 
made of the interlocking type in which provision 
is made for interlocking members, both in the 
vertical and horizontal joints. Such block are 
made and may be made by the three principal 
processes of concrete block manufacture, namely, 
by tamping, by pouring or by pressure. All of 
the machines and molds now on the market which 
make this type of block are so constructed that 
block will be uniform in dimensions, thereby re¬ 
ducing the mortar joints to a minimum of about 
T /s in. if such closeness in joining is, desired. 
Heavier joints can be made if required. 

In all systems of block construction the ver¬ 
tical spaces are arranged so as to form continu- 



TYPES OF BLOCK 115 - 

ous flues from the bottom to the top of a wall. 
They therefore afford unusual opportunities to 
secure thorough ventilation of a structure and 
also constitute convenient passageways for elec¬ 
tric wiring and various kinds of service pipes. 

Nel-Stone Precast Monolithic System. 

The Nel-Stone precast monolithic system is a 
method of construction evolved and patented by 
W. E. Nelson, architect and engineer. It consists 
of precast block 12 by 12 by any desired thick¬ 
ness, the block being edged with a groove into 
which suitable reinforcing rods are introduced, 


Nel-Stone Stock Watering Tank Built in Texas. 



116 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


the space left in the groove being filled with a 
Portland cement grout. 

Some portion of many types of construction 
may utilize this block. It is adaptable to tank, 
drinking trough, silo, reservoir paving, chimney, 
culvert, sewer, retaining walls, straight walls for 
barns, garages, implement sheds and houses. 



How Nel-Stone Units Are Laid to Obtain a Reinforced 

Monolithic Wall. 





































































TYPES OF BLOCK 


117 


1 he system of reinforcing is such as to give 
perfect distribution of the steel which will mini¬ 
mize the liability of shrinkage or temperature 
cracks. These features insure the life and dur¬ 
ability, of the structure. 

Each structure is reinforced to insure its stabil¬ 
ity under the conditions for which it is designed. 

Object of Nelson System. 

The chief object of the Nelson system is to 



Water Storage Tank Built Over a Storeroom on a Ranch 

in Texas. 


eliminate form work in monolithic concrete struc¬ 
tures of many kinds, thereby materially reducing 
the construction time and cutting the cost so 
nearly in half as to compel attention. 

Nel-Stone is a precast concrete unit 12 ins. 
square, of desired thickness. These units com¬ 
pose from 60 to 75% of the wall and create the 
form for the remainder of the wall, which is 









118 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


poured on the job. All corners are made and any 
desired angle or measurement is obtained with the 
standard 12 by 12-in. units. 

Construction under this system does not require 
high-priced skill. Ordinary labor can r.eadily 
build a house, barn, garage, silo, water tank, gran¬ 
ary and other structures. 

Tests have recently been conducted at a Nel- 



A 2-Story Nel-Stone House Before Application of Stucco 

Coat. 


Stone plant near Washington, D. C. In one in¬ 
stance a 5-in. floor slab of Nel-Stone, 6 ft. wide 
for an 8-ft. span, successfully sustained a load 
approximating 375 lbs. per sq. ft., without any 
sign of failure. In another instance two walls, 
6 by 6 ft., 5 ins. thick, were set up with a plat¬ 
form across the top on which was loaded a car of 
sand, approximately 60 tons. There was no sign 






TYPES OF BLOCK 


119 


of failure. Because of the steel reinforcement and 
pouring of the joints to make the walls mono¬ 
lithic, this 5-in. Nel-Stone wall more than met the 
requirements of 8-in. walls in some building codes. 

Reinforcing steel used in this system is pro¬ 
tected from corrosion. Expansion and contrac¬ 
tion are absorbed by the unit construction and the 
cushioning of the joints. The Nel-Stone bond, a 
compound evolved by Mr. Nelson, is put on the 



A Reinforced Concrete Silo Being Built with Nel-Stone 

U nits. 


Nel-Stone units at the plant. This bonding com¬ 
pound is said to waterproof the poured part of 
the structure which contains the steel. It is also 
said to assure an excellent bond between the block 
and the poured parts of the structure. 

Nel-Stone units are made in standard size to 
simplify construction and of different thicknesses 
to meet all requirements. Basements lined with 
Nel-Stone construction are said to be waterproof 
and free from dampness. They make a founda¬ 
tion that is claimed will not crack even when 
there is a settling of the building. Naturally, the 
element of economy in time and cost obtains in 






















120 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

this instance as in others of Nel-Stone construc¬ 
tion. 

This system has been demonstrated as particu¬ 
larly desirable for garages, industrial plants, grain 
elevators, coal pockets, bins, water tanks and tanks 
for fuel oil, irrigation structures, culverts, flumes 
and. in fact, all reinforced concrete structures. 

Nel-Stone units are made on specially con¬ 
structed casting cars supplied by the inventor and 



Cross Section of Sewer Man-Sectional Plan of Sewer Man¬ 
hole Built of Segmental hole Showing Mortise and 
Concrete Block. Tenon Vertical Joints. 

licensor. The wheels of these cars are slightly 
deformed for the purpose of creating a constant 
vibration as the car rolls from the mixer to the 
curing rooms. 






























































121 


TYPES OF BLOCK 
Block-O-Brick. 

I here was placed on the market in 1923 a new 
building unit known as a “Block-O-Brick” which 
is what the name implies. This is a hollow con¬ 
crete block equal to 12 brick in wall space and 
which when laid results in a wall that bears every 



Square-Core Block. 4—Hydro-Stone Type. 5—Anchor 
Two-Piece Block. 6—Hydraulic-Ramming Type of Block. 

7— Helm Solid Block for Two-Piece Wall Construction. 

8— Ferguson Synstone Type. 9—McArthur Type. 10— 
P-l-C-A-B-B-S Type of Block. 11—Interlocking Type of 
Block. 


appearance of a first class face* brick wall with 
square raked joints. 

The standard “Block-O-Brick” is 8 by 8 by 16 
ins. with %-in. allowance for mortar joints. Due 
to the center course of brick projecting beyond 
each end of the block the joining of what may be 



























































122 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


termed two half brick is not apparent even at 
close range. This product is strictly a unit for 
visible work. 

Brick faces of many colors are obtained by 
using colored cement of high quality. These units 
used for cellar wall with the faces turned inward 
result in a wall looking as if made of high grade 
face brick. The same units laid with the faces out¬ 
ward above grade give the effect of a good face 



An Attractive Concrete Block Garage with Concrete Tile 
Roof—A Fire Resistant Structure. 


brick wall. It is-the common practice to furr the 
inside plaster finish of walls built of Block-O- 
Brick as is recommended for concrete block in 
general. Structures such as dwellings, garages, 
office buildings and business houses are being 
built of Block-O-Briek in many states. 






CHAPTER X. 


STANDARD BLOCK AND TILE SIZES. 

A report was presented to the National Con¬ 
ference on Concrete House Construction in Chi¬ 
cago, 1920 , which can be studied with profit by 
makers of concrete block and tile. 

The purpose of the committee was to collect 
data on standard block and tile sizes, to logically 
arrange this material for use by designers of con¬ 
crete unit structures and to make recommenda¬ 
tions looking toward standardization. 

In general, all block and tile are made with 
hollow spaces or of two-piece construction so as 
to provide air space as an insulating medium, 
lighter weight and to realize economy in materials." 
There is, however, a wide variation in sizes and 
shapes. There are five common types of concrete 
units. 

1. Solid units. 

2. Hollow block. 

3. Hollow building tile. 

4. Solid slab block. 

0 . Architectural shapes. 

A tabulation of sizes of block and tile, as now 
manufactured, is shown in Table I. The name of 
the manufacturer is followed by the height, width 
and length of unit, the actual size of the block or 
tile being given. For instance, a block listed as 
724 ins. high, 8 ins. wide and 1524 ins. long, is 
ordinarily referred to in practice as an 8 -in. by 
8 -in. by 16 -in. block. These units are purposely 
made smaller to allow for the mortar joint which, 
when added to length and height, produces a unit 
of full length and height. 

As a help to the designer in determining the 
most desirable distance horizontally between doors 
and windows to corners, and also the most de- 



124 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


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(Cont’d)—CONCRETE BLOCK SIZES. 


BLOCK AND TILE SIZES 


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126 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


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127 


BLOCK AND TILE SIZES 


TABLE n 

TABLE SHOWING RELATION BETWEEN NUMBER OF COURSES 
OF CONCRETE BLOCK AND TILE AND THE HEIGHT OF 
WALL FORMED BY UNITS OF DIFFERENT SIZES 


Height or Wall Sections Formed 


COURSES 

3 In. 

4 In. 

5 In. 

6 In. 

8 In. 

9 In. 

10 In. 

12 In. 


Block 

Block 

Block 

Block 

Block 

Block 

Block 

Block 


Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 


1 

0 

3 

0 

4 

0 

5 

0 

6 

0 

8 

0 

9 

0 

10 

1 

0 

2 

0 

6 

0 

8 

0 

10 

1 

0 

1 

4 

1 

6 

1 

8 

2 

0 

3 

0 

9 

1 

0 

1 

3 

1 

6 

2 

0 

2 

3 

2 

6 

3 

0 

4 

1 

0 

1 

4 

1 

8 

2 

0 

2 

8 

3 

0 

3 

4 

4 

0 

5 

1 

3 

1 

8 

2 

1 

2 

6 

3 

4 

3 

9 

4 

2 

5 

0 

6 

1 

6 

2 

0 

2 

6 

3 

0 

4 

0 

4 

6 

5 

0 

6 

0 

7 

1 

9 

2 

4 

2 

11 

3 

6 

4 

8 

5 

3 

5 

10 

7 

0 

8 

2 

0 

2 

8 

3 

4 

4 

0 

5 

4 

6 

0 

6 

8 

8 

0 

9 

2 

3 

3 

0 

3 

9 

4 

6 

6 

0 

6 

9 

7 

6 

9 

0 

10 

2 

6 

3 

4 

4 

2 

5 

0 

6 

8 

7 

6 

8 

4 

10 

0 

11 

2 

9 

3 

8 

4 

7 

5 

6 

7 

4 

8 

3 

9 

2 

11 

0 

12 

3’ 

0 

4 

0 

5 

0 

6 

0 

8 

0 

9 

0 

10 

0 

12 

0 

13 

3 

3 

4 

4 

5 

5 

6 

6 

8 

8 

9 

9 

10 

10 

13 

0 

14 

3 

6 

4 

8 

5 

10 

7 

0 

9 

4 

10 

6 

11 

8 

14 

0 

15 

3 

9 

5 

0 

6 

3 

7 

6 

10 

0 

11 

3 

12 

6 

15 

0 

16 

4 

0 

5 

4 

6 

8 

8 

0 

10 

8 

12 

0 

13 

4 

16 

0 

17 

4 

3 

5 

8 

7 

1 

8 

6 

11 

4 

12 

9 

14 

2 

17 

0 

18 

4 

6 

6 

0 

7 

6 

9 

0 

12 

0 

13 

6 

15 

0 

18 

0 

19 

4 

9 

. 6 

4 

7 

11 

9 

6 

12 

8 

14 

3 

15 

10 

19 

0 

20 

5 

0 

. 6 

8 

8 

4 

10 

0 

13 

4 

15 

0 

16 

8 

20 

0 

21 

5 

3 

7 

0 

8 

9 

10 

6 

14 

0 

15 

9 

17 

6 

21 

0 

22 

5 

6 

7 

4 

9 

2 

11 

0 

14 

8 

16 

6 

18 

4 

22 

0 

23 

5 

9 

7 

8 

9 

7 

11 

6 

15 

4 

17 

3 

19 

2 

23 

0 

24 

6 

0 

8 

0 

10 

0 

12 

0 

16 

0 

18 

0 

20 

0 

24 

0 

25 

6 

3 

8 

4 

10 

5 

12 

6 

16 

8 

18 

9 

20 

10 

25 

0 

26 

6 

6 

8 

8 

10 

10 

13 

0 

17 

4 

19 

6 

21 

8 

26 

0 

27 

6 

9 

9 

0 

11 

3 

13 

6 

18 

0 

20 

3 

22 

6 

27 

0 

. 28 

7 

0 

9 

4 

11 

8 

14 

0 

18 

8 

21 

0 

23 

4 

28 

0 

29 

7 

3 

9 

8 

12 

1 

14 

6 

19 

4 

21 

9 

24 

2 

29 

0 

30 

7 

6 

10 

0 

12 

6 

15 

0 

20 

0 

22 

6 

25 

0 

30 

0 

31 

7 

9 

10 

4 

12 

11 

15 

6 

20 

8 

23 

3 

25 

10 

31 

0 

32 

8 

0 

10 

8 

13 

4 

16 

0 

21 

4 

24 

0 

26 

8 

32 

0 


TABLE HI 

TABLE SHOWING NUMBER OF BLOCK REQUIRED FOR WALL 
SECTION OF VARIOUS LENGTHS 


Number of 
Block and 
Fraction 
of Block 

Length or Wall Sections 

12-inch Block 

16-inch Block 

20-inch Block 

24-inch Block 

Feet 

Inches 

Feet 

Inches 

Feat 

Inches 

- Feet 

Inches 

i 

i 

0 

i 

4 

1 

8 

2 

0 

1 A 



i 

8 

2 

1 

2 

6 

\A 

i 

6 

2 

0 

2 

6 

3 

0 

m 



' 2 

4 

2 

11 

3 

6 

2 

2 

0 

2 

8 

3 

4 

4 

0 

2 A 



3 

0 

3 

9 

4 

6 

2h 

2 

6 

3 

4 

4 

2 

5 

0 

iy* 



3 

8 

4 

7 

5 

6 

3 

.3 

, o 

4 

0 

5 

0 

6 

0 

3*4 



4 

4 

5 

5 

6 

6 

*A 

3 

6 

4 

8 

5 

10 

7 

0 

3K 



5 

0 

6 

3 

7 

6 

4 

4 

0 

5 

4 

6 

8 

8 

0 

























































































































128 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


TABLE III—Continued 


Number of 
Block and 
Fraction 
of Block 

Lhnqth of Wall Sections 

12-inch Block 

16-inch Block 

20-inch Block 

24-inch Block 

Feet 

Inehes 

Feet 

Inoffes 

Feet 

Inches 

Feet 

Inches 

4K 



5 

8 

7 

i 

8 

6 

4 'A 

4 

6 

6 

0 

7 

6 

9 

0 

4 V. 



6 

4 

7 

11 

9 

6 

5 

5 

0 

6 

8 

8 

4 

10 

0 

5* 



7 

0 

8 

9 

10 

6 

5K 

5 

6 

7 

4 

9 

2 

11 

0 

5X 



7 

8 

9 

7 

11 

6 

6 

6 

0 

8 

0 

10 

0 

12 

0 

t'/4 



8 

4 

10 

5 

12 

6 

6'A 

6 

6 

8 

8 

10 

10 

13 

0 

6 y* 



9 

0 

11 

3 

13 

6 

7 

7 

0 

9 

4 

11 

8 

14 

0 




9 

8 

12 

1 

14 

6 

7K 

7 

6 

10 

0 

12 

6 

15 

0 

744 



10 

4 

12 

11 

15 

6 

8 

8 

0 

10 

8 

13 

4 

16 

0 

814 



11 

0 

13 

9 

16 

6 

8 M 

8 

6 

11 

4 

14 

2 

17 

0 

8 44 



11 

8 

14 

7 

17 

6 

9 

9 

0 

12 

0 

IS 

0 

18 

0 

94a 

9 

3 

12 

4 

15 

5 

18 

6 

9& 

9 

6 

12 

8 

15 

10 

19 

0 

94a 

9 

9 

13 

0 

16 

3 

19 

6 

10 

10 

o 

13 

4 

16 

8 

20 

0 

ioy 4 

10 

3 

13 

8 

17 

1 

20 

6 

10>4 

10 

6 

14 

0 

17 

6 

21 

0 

1044 

10 

9 

14 

4 

17 

11 

21 

6 

11 

11 

0 

14 

8 

18 

4 

22 

0 

ny 4 

11 

3 

15 

0 

18 

9 

22 

6 

ny, 

11 

6 

15 

4 

19 

2 

23 

0 

tUa 

tl 

9 

15 

8 

19 

7 

23 

6 

12 

12 

0 

16 

0 

20 

0 

24 

0 

Yl% 

12 

3 

16 

4 

20 

5 

24 

6 

uy, 

12 

6 

16 

8 

20 

10 

25 

0 

12^4 

12 

9 

17 

0 

21 

3 

25 

6 

13 

13 

0 

17 

4 

21 

8 

26 

0 

uy 4 

13 

3 

17 

8 

22 

1 

26 

6 

1 i'A 

13 

6 

18 

0 

22 

6 

27 

0 

1344 

13 

9 

18 

4 

22 

11 

27 

6 

14 

14 

0 

18 

8 

23 

4 

28 

0 

1444 

14 

3 

19 

0 

23 

9 

28 

6 

1445 

14 

6 

19 

4 

24 

2 

29 

0 

14^4 

14 

9 

19 

8 

24 

7 

29 

6 

15 

15 

0 

20 

0 

25 

0 

30 

0 

15K 

15 

3 

20 

4 

25 

5 

30 

6 

15y 

15 

6 

20 

8 

25 

10 , 

31 

0 

1544 

15 

9 

21 

0 

26 

3 

31 

6 

16 

16 

0 

21 

4 

26 

8 

32 

0 

16y 4 

16 

} 

21 

8 

27 

1 

32 

6 

i6y 

16 

6 

22 

0 

27 

6 

33 

0 

1644 

16 

9 

22 

4 

27 

11 

33 

6 

17 

17 

0 

22 

8 

28 

4 

34 

0 

i7y 4 

17 

3 

23 

0 

28 

9 

34 

6 

1744 

17 

6 

23 

4 

29 

2 

35 

0 

1744 

17 

9 

23 

8 

29 

7 

35 

0 

18 

18 

0 

24 

0 

30 

0 

36 

0 




























































































































129 


BLOCK AND TILE SIZES 

sirable width of door and window openings. Table 
III has been prepared. Lengths of wall sections 
and door and window openings should be, as far 
as possible, multiples of quarter blocks. 

Table III gives the length of wall sections of 
from i to 18 units by Lt units. The committee 
believes that a quarter length is as small a fraction 
of a unit as is necessary or desirable and that 



Elevation of House to Be Used in Connection with 

Tables II and III. 


manufacturers of molds should adapt their ma¬ 
chines and furnish suitable division plates for 
making %, and ^-length blocks. By careful 
design it is often possible to get along with two 
sizes of units, the full-length and the half-length 
units. 

The purpose of Table II is similar to that of 
Table III. It is intended to help the designer de¬ 
termine the most suitable height for door and win¬ 
dow openings and other vertical wall heights. 

To explain the use of Tables 2 and 3 , a draw¬ 
ing of a house elevation is presented above. - The 


























































































130 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


distance A corresponds to the wall lengths shown 
in Table III and the distance B to heights speci¬ 
fied in Table II| The purpose of both tables is to 
assist the designer in laying out the house so as 
to require no cutting of block which is costly and 
which produces a structure of unattractive appear¬ 
ance. Both tables will be found helpful in esti¬ 
mating the number of concrete units for a par¬ 
ticular job. 

Corner block, joist block, sills, lintels and other 
special shapes should be furnished by the concrete 
products manufacturer so as to make it possible 
for the constructor to erect the building complete. 
Nothing detracts more from the appearance of a 
structure than poorly made and improperly fitted 
building trim. It has been suggested that jamb 
block be used next to all doors and windows in 
place of the block with an ordinary end. 

It is often difficult to select the exact size of 
block or tile for certain work. There are many 
factors to be taken into consideration, such as 
nature of building, size of wall space, weight of 
unit and architectural effect desired. Each size of 
unit has its particular uses. The size of joints is 
of importance. There is a great variation in this 
respect and the general feeling of the committee 
was that the %-in. joint be used, and that this be 
borne in mind by the manufacturers of machines 
and molds so that equipment for making block 
and tile may be designed accordingly. 

The question has arisen as to the best method 
for designating sizes of block, and the committee 
recommended the designation of height, width 
and length. 

Standard Sizes of Block. 

At the 1924 convention of the American Con¬ 
crete Institute Committee P-1, Concrete Building 
Units, presented a report recommending that the 
standard sizes of block be as follows: 



BLOCK AND TILE SIZES 131 


Height, ins. 

Width, ins. 

Length, ins. 

7% 

6 

15% 

7% 

S 

15% 

7% 

10 

15% 

7% 

12 

15% 


It was also recommended that the mortar joint 
allowance be in. This report was based on a 


A Frame House Veneered With Concrete Block in 

Lanesboro, Minn. 

survey of the industry to ascertain the sizes and 
joint allowance most popular with builders and 
architects. The height, width and length of the 
block and tile were taken as they are ordinarily 
laid in walls. 












CHAPTER XI. 


HOLLOW BUILDING TILE 


Hollow concrete building tile are being used 
for the walls of dwellings, apartment houses and 
business buildings. Hollow concrete partition 



tile are now available for the construction of fire 
proof partitions in any type of building. A num¬ 
ber of concrete tile machines are now on the 
market which can be used to make concrete build¬ 
ing tile of high quality. Architects will be well 
impressed with the many merits of this valuable 
building material which is growing rapidly in 



Eberling Building Tile. 





























































































































BUILDING TILE 133 

favor. It has been on the United States market 
but for a few years although in European coun¬ 
tries concrete building tile have been used with 
great satisfaction for many years. One point 
which appeals to the architect is the ability of 
the tile to take and hold cement stucco. Tile 
walls can also be faced with brick. The fact of 



the tile being true in shape and line results in a 
saving of stucco as it is not necessary to apply 
a thick surface of stucco. Instead of two or 
three coats one coat of cement stucco will give 
excellent satisfaction on hollow concrete tile. 

The manufacture of this tile differs but little 
from the manufacture of machine made concrete 




High-Test Building Tile. 


Lac-Ti le. 















































































































































































































134 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


block except that finer aggregate is used on ac¬ 
count of the thinner walls and webs. Where 
coarse aggregate is scarce this type of building 
unit would make available the finer aggregate 
which in the form of sand is found generally 
throughout North America. 

Hollow concrete building tile are being manu¬ 
factured which have an air space in excess of 


33^4%. These tile 
when made of good 
concrete by power 
machines develop am¬ 
ple strength for walls 
of many different 
structures. Such tile 
m a d e in accordance 
with good practice 
will bear greater loads 
than poor block. This 
but emphasizes the 



Cd-OiS StCTlOM 

National Stone-Tile. 


need of making high quality building units. 

While some block machines have been devel¬ 
oped to make light weight building tile, other ma¬ 
chines have been designed tor the special purpose 
of making building tile. Also special systems of 
molds have been devised to produce building tile. 
The manufacturing processes therefore include 
tamping, pressing, packing and pouring. 

file made by the various processes if well pro¬ 
portioned concrete is used and properly cured will 
meet the requirements of the American Concrete 
Institute for load bearing units and heavy load 
bearing units. 

Building tile has a wide range of usefulness, 
being suitable for dwellings, apartments, garages, 
warehouses and other structures. For warehouses 
the walls need no finish such as stucco. 

Special units are so made that economy will be 
achieved in setting window frames, door frames, 





BUILDING TILE 135 

joists and other wood work. The units being light, 
a mason can lay many of them in a day. The 
principal advantages of concrete building tile are 
lightness, adequate strength, good insulation. 



Example of Wall Construction With Concrete Light 

Weight Building Tile. 


economy of concrete per square foot of wall and 
durability. 

Concrete building tile have given satisfactory 
service wherever they have been used. A striking 
example is the result of a large industrial housing 
job of the Studebaker Corp. at South Bend, Ind., 
































136 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

in which complete cost data were kept on three 
types of construction: brick veneer, frame with 
stucco on wood lath and stucco on concrete tile. 
The result, as stated by the Studebaker Corp., 
showed that stuccoed houses built of concrete 
building tile had an initial cost lower than frame 
houses built from the same floor plans. 

Concrete tile have been used recently by the 



A Durable Home Built of Concrete Building Tile, Faced 
with Portland Cement Stucco. Precast Steps 
Used at Porch Entrance. 

Ideal Concrete Machinery Co., at Cincinnati, and 
the Blystone Manufacturing Co., at Cambridge 
Springs, Pa., in the construction of factory build¬ 
ings for the respective companies. 

Concrete tile are being used extensively in De¬ 
troit and in some of the eastern cities. Its use 
will develop as the merits of concrete tile become 
better known. 

At the 1922 convention of the American Con¬ 
crete Institute, Barton V. Brooke, architect for 
the Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co., Youngstown, 














BUILDING TILE 


137 


( )., presented a paper giving his experience in the 
manufacture of 300,000 of 5 by 8 by 12-in. con¬ 
crete hollow building tile and their use in the con¬ 
struction of 275 homes. In 1920 Mr. Brooke 
attended the National Conference on Concrete 
Housing at Chicago and learned of hollow con¬ 
crete tile, which he thought would solve their con¬ 
struction problem at Youngstown. Mr. Brooke 
stated in referring to a house built entirely of con¬ 
crete tile: “ The basement walls were constructed 
of 12 -in. concrete tile, faced with 4 ins. of brick, 
and the superstructure was built of 12-in. tile 
finished with stucco. The labor cost of the 12-in. 



A Bungalow of Concrete Building Tile Before Stucco 
Finish Was Applied to the Walls. 


tile walls were 15 cts. per cu. ft. with facing at 
$1.50 per hour and labor at 80 cts. per hour. 
Stucco was applied in two light coats, giving per¬ 
fect results, at a cost of 50 cts. per sq. yd., as 
against $2 per sq. yd., which was the price at the 
time for stucco on terra cotta tile. These are 
remarkably low costs for the times and at least so 
far as the make and labor are concerned, should 
be cut in half today. I do not believe there is a 
building here which can be handled and laid in a 
wall at lower costs than these tile, and I am sure 
there is no base for portland cement stucco that 
compares with it in any way. The wall and the 











138 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


stucco being of the same material, all difference in 
expansion and contraction which generally causes 
cracks in stucco is eliminated and the wall is.so 
straight and plumb that two light coats of stucco 
give perfect results, without the usual screeding 
and darbying required on more uneven surfaces, 
hence a saving of both labor and material is made. 

“The house foundation is working very suc¬ 
cessfully. Walls were covered with stucco and 
waterproofed below grade with perfect results. 
The walls were 8 ins. thick and laid at a labor cost 
of 10 cts. per sq. ft. of wall surface, and plastered 
at 50 cts. per sq. yd., as was the case in another 



A Bungalow Built of Concrete Building Tile After Walls 
Were Finished with Stucco. 


building. The completed foundation was amply 
strong for a two-story house and constructed at 
half the cost of monolithic concrete, as well as 
giving a better appearance. 

“The advantages of such a house are obvious in 
its comparative safety from fire, permanency and 
low maintenance expense. I believe that under 
favorable conditions of manufacture and labor it 
will not exceed a frame house in cost/’ 

Corn Cribs Built of Concrete Tile. 

To reduce the fire hazard and to obtain durable 
structures much thought and ingenuity has been 






BUILDING TILE 


139 


expended by inventors of various types and de¬ 
signs of corn crib block and tile. It is unusual for 
an ordinary building unit of concrete to be used 
for corn crib walls. The facts set forth herein 
should indicate that many products makers can 
extend the uses of some of the building units. 

In the corn crib it is desirable to obtain ven¬ 
tilation, dryness, fire resistance, stability, safety 
against rodents and attractive appearance. 

The factors involved to obtain the aforesaid 
qualifications are: 

Ventilation —To obtain ventilation, air must 



A Concrete Tile Bungalow of Attractive Appearance Built 

in Los Angeles, Cal. 


have easy access to and through the crib and its 
contents. Slots or openings of various shapes 
have been tried. The slots must be of such size 
as will prevent the contents from falling through. 

Dryness —It is desirable that rain be prevented 
from entering the crib. To this end a tight roof 
is used and the slots are so designed and placed 
as to prevent ordinary rains from driving through 
the walls. 

All of the foregoing features are provided for 
in such concrete corn cribs as are described and 
illustrated herein built of High-Test concrete 
building tile. As can be seen, these cribs are 







140 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

built on reinforced concrete foundations. Stand¬ 
ard building tile were used for both buildings. 
The bottom of the tile was turned outward, form¬ 
ing the outer face of the wall. By laying in this 
manner, with the tile on end, the hand hold open¬ 
ings form vertical slots of comparatively narrow 
width. .In this, as in similar tile, there is consid¬ 
erable taper to the cores used to form the air 
spaces which causes the faces of the webs of the 
tile and the outer walls or webs to slant outward 



A Combined Store and Apartment Building Built of Con¬ 
crete Hollow Building Tile. 


and in the bottom web to slant downward. Any 
rain driven into the wall will drain outward. The 
concrete floor should be graded so it will slant 
from the center of the crib downward toward the 
outer walls,.with provision for drainage of any 
water that may enter from a rain driving in a 
horizontal direction against the walls. It will he 
observed that wire mesh has been placed to cover 
the two lower tiers of tile. This mesh was first 
laid on the concrete foundation, then mortar and 
two layers .of tile were placed and the mesh then 
turned up and over the upper edge of the second 







BUILDING TILE 


141 


tier of tile. The third tier was then laid and it 
anchored the mesh firmly in place. Wire mesh 
used for this purpose should be made of copper 
wire, bronze wire or of rustproof iron wire. Mesh 
of poor grade is likely to rust out and it will be 
then necessary to rake out the joints to replace 



View Showing Two Sides of Corn Crib Built of High-Test 
Concrete Building Tile. 


the mesh and remake the joints. The use of rust¬ 
proof wire will prove economical in a concrete 
corn crib. 

The corn cribs were built and the tile therefor 
were made under the direction of Dr. S. O. Lock- 
wood, superintendent Minneapolis City Work- 
house, who in referring to the work stated: 

The corn cribs are 8 by 10 by 8 ft. inside measure¬ 
ment and have a capacity of about 1200 bus. if filled to 
the roof but normally contain a little over 1000 bus. 
The one built of the small partition tile contains 1300 
tile. The crib with the large tile has 650 tile. I used 
in the manufacture of these a concrete mixture of 1 to 5 
and I believe that a brick mason with good helpers 
could lay easily 250 tile a day of the large tile and 300 













142 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


of the small tile. As to our capacity in producing these 
tile I cannot give accurate figures for the reason that 
we have not enough steam curing space to take care of 
both tile and brick, but under proper conditions we 
could easily make 3000 tile or more a day. 

When we first started to make the large tile I was 



Near View Showing End of Corn Crib and Details of Tile 

Work and Foundation. 

very much disappointed in the results of tests submitted 
to me by the Minneapolis Building Department. The 
first showed a total breaking load of 56,280 lbs., or 617 
lbs. per sq. in. of gross area, and 1046 lbs. per sq. in. of 
net area. I used an aggregate on these tile of sharp 
washed sand and cement in the proportions of 1 :5. By 
changing my aggregate by the addition of some coarser 



BUILDING TILE 


143 


gravel I increased the strengths to 119,120 lbs. total 
or 1309 lbs. per sq. in. of gross area, and 2173 lbs. per 
sq. in. of net area. I finally used an aggregate of half 
pebbles, not to exceed Y in., and half screened sand. 
This concrete now gives me a breaking load of 166,220 
lbs. total, or 1826 lbs. per sq. in. of gross area, and 3033 
. lbs. per sq. in. of net area, but I find that I have in¬ 
creased the weight of my tile from 19*4 lbs. to 22^4 lbs. 

When these tile are taken from the machine they are 
pla-ced on a carrier and wheeled into the steam room 
which is supplied with low pressure steam where they 
remain for 48 hours. The tile are then taken to the 
yard. I use a steel pallet in handling both the tile and 



Concrete Tile Baffle Wall Built by California Cap Co., 

Oakland, Cal. 

brick as I have found that it has reduced my breakage 
to a minimum. 

Concrete Tile Bulkhead for Explosive 

Works. 

A novel use for concrete building tile is shown 
in the accompanying illustration of a wall 10 ft. 
high and 300 ft. long. This wall was built by the 
California Cap Co., Oakland, Cal. Powder maga¬ 
zines are located on each side of this A-section 
baffle wall, the function of which is to be prevent 
communication of an explosion on one side of the 
wall to magazines on the other side. 

Concrete footings were prepared and while still 
soft, tile laying started. Each course of tile was 
laid on a slant so they would form two walls 




144 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


meeting at the 10-ft. level. One bricklayer was 
employed and laid one course of tile at a time. It 
is remarkable that no difficulty was experienced 
in laying the tile on a slant. This is probably due 
to the fact that each course of tile was laid en¬ 
tirely before another course was started and to the 
high efficiency of portland cement mortar when 
used to bond portland cement concrete units. 

This structure evidences the ever increasing 
adaptability of concrete products to various uses. 
The units used in the construction of the baffle 
bulkhead were made by a licensee of the National 
Stone Tile Co. of San Francisco. 

Concrete building tile made by the Stone-Tile 
process are manufactured in a large number of 
plants in California. Plants are being established 
in other states. The process employs the use 
of wet concrete which is conveyed from the mixer 
by a concrete buggy, in this case, or by any other 
method that may be preferred by the plant oper¬ 
ator. Where a concrete buggy is used, portable 
plank runways are laid alongside a row of beds 
to permit easy wheeling. The concrete mixer 
operated by a gasoline engine is mounted on 
wheels resting on the rails of an industrial track 
which runs along the one end of the various mold 
beds. On the opposite side of the track are piles 
of aggregate. Cement for a day’s run can be dis¬ 
tributed at suitable intervals. 

The rapid expansion of the concrete products 
industry is attracting the attention of many per¬ 
sons of inventive genius. The demand for quality 
concrete products exceeds the supply in many 
districts. The fact that new uses are being found 
for concrete products assists in overtaxing the 
productive capacity of existing plants where the 
operators are alive to the necessity of making- 
products to give service. Uses other than those 
recorded in the past will be found as time passes 


BUILDING TILE 


145 


The standard sizes for concrete hollow building 
tile recommended by the American Concrete Insti¬ 
tute are as follows: 

Height, ins. ' Width, ins 


Duntile. 

The Dunn drain tile machine of the revolving 
packer head type is used in a large number of 
plants to make building tile which are being favor¬ 
ably received. The development of this building 
unit has been rapid during the years of 1922, 1923 
and 1924. The product has been given the trade 
name of “Duntile." These units are made with a 
variety of facings, including the plain natural face 
produced by the aggregate and cement used, fluted 
faces and colored faces of beautiful tints. 

Duntile are being made in a large number of 
factories well distributed over the more thickly 
populated sections of America. The quality of 
concrete entering into the manufacture of Duntile 
in general is excellent and the strength of the 
units compare favorably with other building units 
of equal size. 


Length, ins. 

. 12 
12 
12 


fi 





I 


CHAPTER XII. 


CONCRETE BRICK. 

As with other concrete products, the demand 
for concrete brick is increasing rapidly. Properly 
made, they are equal to the best pressed brick in 
appearance, far excel them in durability and 
strength, and can be made commercially so that 
they may be marketed with a very satisfactory 
profit. In some instances concrete block ma¬ 
chines can be adapted to making concrete brick, 
but in the average commercial products plant it 
will be found best to install an exclusive power 
operated concrete brick machine. 

Success in the manufacture of concrete brick 
comes from observing the same fundamentals of 
proportioning and mixing materials as apply to 
other uses of concrete. The process of manu¬ 
facturing concrete brick necessitates a mixture 
employing less water than used in general con¬ 
crete practice, although there is a type of concrete 
brick machine that uses wetter mixtures than are 
ordinarily employed in concrete brick manufac¬ 
ture. 

As a rule concrete brick machines use mix¬ 
tures of a consistency similar to block making 
machines. A battery of molds is lined up below 
a battery of tampers, and these operate so as to 
deliver usually ioo blows a minute. Under such 
conditions the concrete mixture if too wet will be 
dislodged from the molds by the blows of the 
tampers. Therefore the mixture used in making 
concrete brick must be of such a consistency that 
it will pack under the blows of the tamper and 
when molded, will sustain itself without deform¬ 
ation upon immediate removal from the mold. 
To meet these conditions a medium wet mixture 



BRICK 


147 


is used. But to secure satisfactory results there 
must be enough water in the concrete to show a 
slight excess on the surface under tamping. Com¬ 
paratively few manufacturers of concrete brick 
use as much water as their machines will permit. 

In making concrete brick, 1 sack of portland 
cement should be mixed with not more than 3 



Hollow Wall Built of Concrete Brick. 


cu. ft. of clean, coarse sand, graded in size up to 
r 4 in., excepting where tests have been made to 
prove the aggregate is such as can be used with 
less cement and produce a brick of standard 
strength. Concrete brick may be faced with selected 
materials such as granite screenings, micaspar, 
mixtures of white cement and white sand, or may 







148 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


be faced with colored mortars, just as can be 
done in the manufacture of concrete block. 
Facing mixtures should consist of i sack of port- 
land cement to 2 parts of the white sand screen¬ 
ings or other fine aggregate to be used. Although 
it is the custom of some manufacturers to make 
the facing material somewhat drier than the 
bocfy of the brick, this practice is not to be 
recommended. If artificial colors are desired, 
only mineral coloring matter should be used and 
must not exceed 8 % of the weight of cement,' 
with which it should be thoroughly mixed be¬ 
fore either aggregate or water is added. 

Concrete brick, like concrete block, should be 
cured by steam exactly as described for concrete 
block and other small products, and they should 
be at least 2 weeks old if steam cured and at least 
4 weeks old if cured under normal atmosphere 
conditions, before being used in any important 
construction. They are laid up just as ordinary 
clay brick are laid, and like concrete block should 
be wet before laying to prevent excessive absorp¬ 
tion of water from the mortar. 

The American Concrete Institute at the 1924 
convention adopted a report presented by Com¬ 
mittee P-0 recommending that standard sizes for 
concrete brick be as follows: • 

, 4 - j. 

Rough. 

Height, ins. Width, ins. Length, ins. 

12%.. 3% .. S 

Smooth. 

2% 3% 8 

The height, width and length of these brick are 
taken as they are laid in a wall. 

Brick Molds. 

Molds of various types for the manufacture of 
brick are on the market and range from a small 
hand mold to large gang molds mounted on cars. 1 
The process of making poured brick is the same 


BRICK 


149 


as used in making poured concrete block, the main 
difference being in the molds. The same care 
must be exercised in making poured brick as is 
necessary in the manufacture of quality poured 
block. 

There has been such great development in the 
concrete brick industry in recent years that many 
persons desiring to engage in the manufacture of 
concrete brick have requested information regard- 



Cottages of Concrete Brick Which Grew Stronger With 

Age. 


ing the merits and demerits of this unit. The 
alleged demerits are: 

1. The extreme hardness of the brick, which to some 
extent justifies the claim that the brick are hard to break. 

2. The sharp- edges, which it is claimed makes the 
brick unpopular with bricklayers. 

Investigation has shown that these demerits are 
more imaginary than real, as the same tools used 
by bricklayers in laying high grade clay faced 
brick, possessing qualities of hardness and sharp 
edges, are also usable and are used in breaking 
high grade concrete face brick. Bricklayers are 
in the habit of protecting their fingers by wrap¬ 
ping them with electric friction tape or by using- 
rubber finger stalls. This is done by brick masons 










150 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


handling any kind of masonry units. Hence the 
sharp edge claim will be found imaginary in most 
districts. 

The merits of concrete brick embrace the fol¬ 
lowing qualities: Hardness, weatherproofness, 
true corners and edges, the faculty of growing 
stronger with age, susceptibility to treatment, so 
that brick in old structures can be matched per¬ 
fectly by new brick, made for the purpose. Last 
but not least, ability to be repaired in the event 
the brick are broken at door or window opening 
through carelessness of workmen who may be 
moving goods into or out of the building. 

Haydenite Brick. 

A one-piece brick is now on the market with 
which a hollow air space wall can be constructed. 
The brick is in the shape of a block capital letter 



Drawing Showing Haydenite Brick and a Wall Section 

Built of the H Brick. 

H and are made two at a time on a machine 
equipped with a tamper. Both hand and power 
machines are available. Rapid brick laying is 
accomplished through the use of this product. 

The Shope Process. 

A process of concrete brick manufacture pos¬ 
sessing peculiar merits is the Shope process, 
through which it is possible to obtain more than 


BRICK 


151 

47 different high grade facings of concrete brick. 
This process is patented, and in addition thereto, 
there are some secrets of the trade which are only 
transmitted to licensed operators. There have 
been many beautiful structures built of Shope 
brick. There are many Shope brick plants oper- 



ilfe ■ 


Typical Cone of a Concrete Brick Pier After Crushing 
Test Showing Perfect Bonding of Brick and Mortar. 


ating in the United States. Laboratory tests made 
on the products of a number of Shope plants have 
proven the brick to be high in quality. A particu¬ 
lar merit of the Shope process lies in the fact that 
the facing is firmly bonded to the backing. This 
necessarily results in a product of merit. 



CHAPTER XIII. 


CONCRETE CHIMNEY BLOCK. 

Concrete chimney block can be used to good 
advantage in the construction of chimneys if the 
block are properly designed, made in accordance 
with good practice and laid with the: careful work¬ 
manship that should be requireckon all types of 
chimneys. The Multiplex chimney block is noted 
for its good features and has been approved for 
chimney construction in some of the large cities. 

In constructing chimneys it is necessary to pro¬ 
vide a clear passage for the .escape of smoke and 
gases and to so construct the passageway or flue, 
that flames, sparks or gases cannot escape through 
the sides of the chimney into any portion of the 
building.' Therefore all joints must be tight and 
perfectly formed. In the Multiplex block the 
only joints are horizontal and are of the tongue 
and groove type. An air space is provided be¬ 
tween the circular or elliptical flue section and the 
square section outer wall. This air space acts as 
an insulating medium although it is not necessary 
in all cases. In laying the Multiplex block 
some masons have used a thick grout which is 
poured into the groove in the same manner as 
one would pour batter from a spouted can. Both 
the circular groove and the outer groove are filled 
with this thick grout and then the next section of 
chimney block is set in place. The tongue on the 
bottom of the block enters the groove in the top 
face of, the lower block and forces the surplus 
grout over the edges of the groove. Care must 
be taken to obtain a smooth joint insicfe the flue. 

Multiplex chimney block are being manufac¬ 
tured generally throughout the*iUnited States and 
have given satisfaction wherever used. No re¬ 
port has been made of fires occurring in buildings, 



CHIMNEY BLOCK 


153 


due to the fact that these chimney block were 
used. P. A. Napoli, under date of April 27, 1923, 
reported that he had no trouble due to settlement 
or cracking of these chimneys. The American 
Glass Specialty Co. of Monaca, Pa., early in 1922 
used Multiplex chimney block made of cinder 
concrete on a furnace in which high temperatures 
were maintained. The results were so satisfac¬ 
tory that the company has equipped other fur¬ 
naces with the same type of flue block and have 
built the furnaces themselves of cinder concrete 
block. 

Crushed blast furnace slag, cinders, trap rock, 
volcanic slag, cement clinker, burned "clay and 
limestone are the coarse aggregates preferred for 
chimney block manufacture. Where heat is in¬ 
tense it is advisable to use these aggregates in 
preference to others not as fire resistant. 

All. chimney block of whatever type should be 
properly cured and should not be laid while in a 
green state. All chimney block should be sound 
whole sections so tight joints will be obtained. 
Where corners are broken from the block so the 
break extends to the hollow air space or flue space 
the block should be rejected, and if rejected by 
the manufacturer should be destroyed. 

There is a variety of opinions on the subject of 
concrete block chimneys which state of mind is 
probably due to the lack of information available 
as to the actual fire resistance of concrete block 
chimneys. Under date of April 17, 1922, Frank 
Burton, Commissioner, Department of Buildings 
and Safety Engineering, City of Detroit, Mich., 
wrote the editor of Concrete Products as follows: 

We have no ordinance in this city on the matter and 
at one time the department refused to accept any type 
of concrete chimney block, insisting upon a brick chim¬ 
ney with a tile flue lining. Pressure was brought to 
bear upon the common council and an amendment to our 
building code presented to them which would permit the 


154 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


use of these chimney block. The amendment was never 
passed but the council did instruct the department to 
approve chimney block subject to certain conditions set 
forth therein. / 

I am sending you a copy of this proposed amendment 
and you will note that the last paragraph is not a part of 
the original proposal but was added on by the then com¬ 
missioner. I am also sending you a sketch of the only 
type of concrete chimney block 1 which has ever been 




Z0\ 24' 





Srzes 

16x16' 

2,072.0' 



Types of Concrete Chimney Block—The Multiplex in 
Upper Left Hand Corner. 












































































CHIMNEY BLOCK 


155 


approved by this department. We have never made any 
tests of these block for strength or fire resistance, and 
so far as I can learn they have proved satisfactory in 
use and we have no reason to complain about them. 

Chimney block is one building unit which must 
give service and any great lack of service may 
readily become apparent. The chimney block 
manufacturer who attempts to make a cheap 
chimney block and robs the concrete of cement, 
water, curing and workmanship is injuring his 
own prospects as well as those of his fellow 
manufacturers. 

Chimneys for any type of building must be built 
on a substantial foundation. In frame buildings 
the chimneys should be self-sustaining and the 
same applies to any type of building, the walls of 
which are likely to settle out of line, out of plumb 
or out of level. Where chimneys are not run to 
or below the ground line, then such a chimney 
must become part of the wall in so far as any 
movement of the wall may occur. Any shelf or 
bracket must be sufficient to carry the load of the 
chimney with ample safety. 


1 Multiplex concrete chimney block. 



CHAPTER XIV. 


CONCRETE STEPS. 

It has been often said that “there is nothing new 
under the sun.” This old adage is proven false 
frequently in the concrete products industry. One 
of the newest things in this industry is a machine 
for making beautiful reinforced concrete steps 
having a granitic finish or other finish'as may be 
desired. 

The up to date concrete products manufacturer 



Two IVien Handle the Precast Concrete Steps with Ease, 
as Is Indicated in This View. 

is ever on the lookout for something new and 
useful which can be made of concrete and which 
can be used to make an all-concrete house. As a 
matter of course the manufacturer wants to make 
something which will sell readily and return a fair 
profit for the maker. 










STEPS 


157 


For a number of years the Barriball Bros. Co., 
Cleveland, O., has been one of the leaders in the 
concrete products industry in the Cleveland dis¬ 
trict. Among the articles which the company has 
produced and which have contributed largely to 
the leadership which the company has been able 
to maintain is a patented concrete step made in 
units which are assembled in place on the job. 
The result is a beautiful approach to the houses. 

The accompanying illustrations show the man¬ 
ner in which these steps are assembled and lllus- 



Here Is a Complete Set of Factory Made Concrete Steps 
with a Factory Made Pair of Step Jacks. 


trates the ease and speed with which the mason 
does this. These steps may be made at a cost 
which is less than the cost of stone steps and all 
architects, builders, mason contractors and prod¬ 
ucts men who have viewed these steps in process 
of manufacture or in use join in declaring the 
product to be superior in every way to anything 
















158 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

that is now manufactured or is now upon the 
market. 

One of the illustrations shows a pair of open 
end steps and illustrates the manner in which the 
supporting side walls or jacks carry the load of 
the step and indicates the attractiveness of these 
steps when in place. These supporting side walls 
or step jacks are made in one piece, thereby re¬ 
ducing the labor of setting by one-half. The steps 


Factory Made Steps Are Usable with Block or Brick 
Supports and Side Walls as May Be Desired. 


made in different designs blend with any style of 
architecture and may be used with any type of 
construction. The round edges are not easily 
chipped and the concealed joint obviates any open 
spaces in construction. 

Means for manufacturing make it possible to 
supply this step in any length and with any de¬ 
sired rise and tread. Reinforcing rods are em¬ 
ployed in rise and tread and the construction is 


















CONCRETE STEPS 


159 


such that the step, meets all building codes. Facing 
may be employed when it is desired to match 
other parts of the building. This type of step is 
used for front approaches while unfaced concrete 
is usually employed for back steps of houses or 
for terrace steps. 

Hundreds of these steps are in use in Cleveland 
and vicinity and years of service have shown that 
they are practical in every way. The fact that 
Barriball Bros. Co. have been called upon to fur¬ 
nish more and more steps each year indicates the 
superiority of this type of step over others. 

Originally these steps were made upon solid 
molds standing on benches and the operation of 
making the step was somewhat crude. The steps, 
themselves, were excellent but Bob Barriball had 
in mind a machine for manufacturing these steps 
which would not only speed up the process and 
enable more steps to be made in a day’s time, 
thereby increasing the profit to the manufacturer, 
but also produce a perfect product. This machine 
has been patented and is on the market. 


CHAPTER XV. 


SILLS, LINTELS AND OTHER TRIM- 

STONE. 

Much can be learned regarding the art of 
building with concrete. Concrete brick, block 
or tile walls do not alone constitute a concrete 
house. Floors and roofs can also be built with 
concrete units. 

Every concrete block house should have pre¬ 
cast concrete sills, lintels and other concrete trim. 
Besides making a more attractive structure, pre¬ 
cast sills and lintels improve construction and 
usually lower costs. 

Precast Sills and Lintels Save Mason's 

Time. 

Masons are able to erect a larger section of wall 
in a given time when properly designed precast 
sills and lintels are used as no time is lost in cut¬ 
ting block or fitting in special shapes at the door 
and window openings. Sills and lintels should be 
designed to conform as to size with the units used 
in the wall. For instance, if blocks 8 ins. in height 
are used, the height of the sills and lintels should 
preferably be 8 ins. Their length also should be 
such that they will exactly replace a definite num¬ 
ber of full or part length block. Thus in a wall 
using 16 -in. block and 8 -in. half block the length 
of sills and lintels should be some multiple of 8 . 
Most concrete block molds and machines are 
equipped so that division plates can be inserted 
making it possible to produce quarter length, 
one-half length and three-quarter length units. 
Then the length of the sill or lintel could con¬ 
veniently be some multiple of 4 ins. in 16 -m. 
block or 6 ins. in 24 -in. block. 



. SILLS AND LINTELS 161 

Precast Sills and Lintels Compared With 
Those Cast in Place. 

While concrete sills and lintels cast in place 
are satisfactory from the standpoint of strength 
and cost, they are usually more difficult and costly 
to make and are seldom comparable in appearance 
to the precast product. No matter how much care 
is exercised in making and setting up the forms, 
the wall below the sill is likely to become smeared 
with concrete that finds its way between the form 
and the wall or is spattered on the wall at the 
time concrete is deposited. Sills and lintels cast 
in place are likely to cause loss of masons’ time 
while waiting for the concrete to harden. 

Design of Sills and Lintels. 

Sills and lintels are of two general • types— 
those which are solid and in one section and those 
which are built in two sections. Sills and lintels 
should preferably be of two-piece construction to 
provide for an air space between the inner and 
outer sections. This air space will prevent con¬ 
densation of moisture in the house at these points. 
The air space need not be greater than %. in. A 
continuous space is all that is required. t When 
the solid or one piece sill or lintel is used it is 
always necessary to furr out’'the plaster. Plaster 
should never be applied directly to the inner sur¬ 
face of a one-piece sill or lintel. Each division 
of the lintel should be reinforced sufficiently to 
carry its proportion of the total superimposed 
load" with a broad factor of safety. As the sills 
are not load bearing no reinforcing steel is re¬ 
quired in them, except a small amount used as a 
safeguard against the possible damage in han¬ 
dling. Lintels, however, must carry the weight 
of the wall over the opening and usually part of 
the floor and roof loads as well. Lintel loads 
may be carried by angle irons as is commonly 


162 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


done in brick construction but reinforced precast 
concrete beams are usually found more eco¬ 
nomical. 

As the recommended type of lintel consists of 
two parts, usually equal in size or approximately 
so, it is customary to place an equal amount of 
reinforcement in each section. The accompanying 
table presents in condensed form the number and 
size of reinforcing rods required in lintels of 
various lengths and of different loadings. Re¬ 
inforcing requirements of lintels 6, 8, 9 and 10 
ins. high were figured because these dimensions 
represent the height of courses of the most com¬ 
monly used types of concrete block. I11 making 
the calculations the lintels were assumed to carry 
the entire weight of the wall directly over them. 
The wall load was figured at 75 lbs. per sq. ft., 
which is equivalent to the weight of a solid con¬ 
crete wall 6 ins. thick or of a concrete block wall 
8 ins. thick having cellular air spaces in the block 
equal to 25% of their volume. These figures will 
generally be found satisfactory for concrete block 
walls 9, 10 and 12 ins. thick as the percentage of 
air space is usually greater than 25% in block of 
these si^es. In addition to carrying a section of 
wall it was assumed that the lintels would carry 
a part of the floor and roof loads. Floor loads 
were estimated at 70 lbs. per sq. ft. A strip of 
floor and a section of roof extending 10 ft. in 
from the wall were assumed to be supported on 
the lintels. In the average two-story dwelling 
house with basement, the lintel loads are approxi¬ 
mately 700 lbs. per lin. ft. in the second story, 
1985 lbs. per lin. ft. in the first story and 3335 
lbs. per lin. ft. in the basement. 

For walls 8 ins. thick it is customary to make 
inner and outer sections of the lintel of the same 
thickness or about 3^4 ins. and an equal amount 
of reinforcing is placed in each section. When a 


163 


SILLS AND LINTELS 

wall is 12 ins. or more in thickness it is prob¬ 
ably better practice to make the inside section of 
the lintel thicker than the one on the outside. 

Using the Table. 

The use of the table can probably be explained 
most clearly by solving the following problem: 

Suppose it is desired to determine the size of 
rods required in the first story lintel of a two- 
story house. The span of the window opening is 
48 ins. and the block used in the construction of 
the wall are 8 by 8 by 16 ins. in size. The lintel 
should then be 8 ins. high. Referring to the table 
we find that two rods each in. in diameter are 
needed. One ^-in. rod will be placed in each 
section of a two-piece lintel and about ^4-in. 
from the lower side as placed in the wall. In a 
similar manner the amount of reinforcing can be 
determined for basement and second story lintels. 
This table is also applicable to one-story houses. 
The first story lintels will then be subject to ap¬ 
proximately the same load as the second story 
lintels shown on the table and the basement lin¬ 
tels will correspond to the first story lintels. 

Molds. 

A number of manufacturers of concrete block 
machines and molds also furnish molds for mak¬ 
ing sills and lintels. Such molds are satisfactory 
but they do not always permit as wide a range of 
shapes as are necessary and desirable in plants 
turning out a variety of lintels as specified by 
architects. The architect has a right to demand 
variation in style so as to secure originality in 
his design. The products manufacturer who 
hopes to get the help of the architect and the dis¬ 
criminating builder must equip his plant to fur¬ 
nish sills and lintels according to the architect’s 
design rather than try to limit his output to a 
few stock sizes and shapes. 


SIZES OF CONCRETE LINTELS. 


164 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 




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Note: For 2-piece lintels place one rod in each section. Rods should be imbedded 
Crete lintels % in. from the lower side as placed in the wall. 































SILLS AND LINTELS 165 

Molds may be made of metal, wood, plaster, 
glue or sand according to the character of the 
work. It is often economical to use a combina¬ 
tion of two or more materials in making a mold 
for a sill, lintel or other piece of trim. For mak¬ 
ing sills and lintels of plain design and simple 
lines, wood forms are used extensively. Where 
there is considerable ornamentation plaster or 
glue molds are used, wood and plaster molds are 
often used together, the plaster being inserted in 
the wood mold where the design is intricate. 
Pieces of channel iron are sometimes used for the 
sides and bottom of the mold boxes and wood or 
plaster inserts laid in at the proper place to form 
the slope and the drip on the sill or any other de¬ 
sired variation in the surface. It is common 
practice to use pieces of steel channel or other 
suitable shape for pallets to provide absolute 
rigidity. In the manufacture of sills and lintels 
metal molds will give good service. 

Aggregate for Trimstone. 

It is a mistake to use too much fine aggregate in 
the manufacture of sills, lintels and trimstone. In 
general larger aggregate can be used in these units 
than in concrete block, brick or tile as the thick¬ 
ness of the concrete is usually greater. Aggre¬ 
gate should be well graded from the finest to the 
largest particle as density is an important factor 
in these units. The largest pieces of aggregate 
could measure not to exceed one-third the thin¬ 
nest dimension of the sill, lintel or trimstone unit. 
Soft, friable stone should not be used as coarse 
aggregate especially if the lintel or piece of trim¬ 
stone is to carry any load. 

Special Facing for Trimstone. 

As several sides of a sill, lintel or other piece 
of trim are exposed, it is necessary to place facing 


166 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


on more than one side. Sills and lintels are 
usually cast face side down. First a thin layer 
of facing mortar is spread out evenly in the bot¬ 
tom of the mold and banked up around the sides 
to a height of several inches on the sides which 
will be exposed when the piece of trimstone is 
placed in the building for which it is intended. 
The concavity thus formed is filled with backing 
concrete, and following this more facing material 
is banked up around the sides. The operation of 
backfilling and placing facing is repeated until the 
mold is filled. The concrete should be tamped 
thoroughly after each layer of concrete is de¬ 
posited. The pallet is then placed on top of the 
mold and firmly clamped to it so that the whole 
outfit can be turned over. When made by the 
tamped process the form boards are carefully re¬ 
moved immediately, any necessary repairs made 
to the surfaces, and the newly molded piece of 
trimstone is carried away on the pallet to the 
curing chamber. With cast or wet mix concrete 
the molds, of course, must not be removed until 
the concrete has hardened sufficiently. 

The manner of treating the surface to remove 
the film of cement and expose the aggregate is the 
same as described for concrete block. The meth¬ 
ods of securing variety in color and texture were 
also discussed in a previous lesson. It is impor¬ 
tant to take great pains to obtain a high quality 
product as trimstone being the most noticeable 
portion of the structure, should be made with 
even greater care than the units in the wall. Par¬ 
ticular precaution should be taken to prevent hair 
cracks or crazing in the surface. The following 
precautions should be observed to eliminate 
crazing: 

1. Avoid an excess of fine material, either cement or 
stone dust. 

2. Avoid the use of excess mixing water. 

3. Avoid methods of placing and finishing which 


TRIMSTONE 167 

will leave a film of fine material on the surface. This 
refers particularly to finishing with a steel trowel. Use 
the steel trowel very little if at all, and substitute the 
wooden float wherever possible. 

4. Adopt methods of surface finish which will re¬ 
move the surface film of fine material and leave coarse 
material exposed, or employ a rough finish in order to 
conceal any crazing which might be noticeable on a 
smooth surface. 

5. Adopt methods of curing which will keep the sur¬ 
face wet continually during the early stages of hard¬ 
ening. 

Concrete trimstone should always be handled 
with extra care so that corners and edges will not 
be chipped or broken. The same care should be 
exercised in handling concrete trimstone as is used 
in handling natural stone, marble or granite trim¬ 
stone. It will pay the manufacturer of concrete 
building units of this class to so pack his units in 
motor truck or freight cars as to reduce the liabil¬ 
ity of breakage to a minimum. Concrete prod¬ 
ucts should be delivered on the job in good con¬ 
dition. 

Well made properly designed architectural con¬ 
crete units can be shipped far beyond the local 
market of the products plant. Sales can be pro¬ 
moted by judicious advertising and by mailing 
leaflets, pamphlets and catalogs containing views 
of typical pieces and a description of the products 
with a statement of their meritorious qualities. 

At the Mooseheart Vocational Institute, Moose- 
heart, Ill., beautiful concrete block, trimstone and 
garden furniture are made. Mica spar is used as 
facing aggregate. For block and trimstone 1 part 
white portland cement to 1 part each of No. 3, 
No. ZV 2 and No. 4 Crown Point mica spar con¬ 
stitutes the facing mixture. For garden furni¬ 
ture a little crushed white marble of hard quality 
is substituted for some of the Crown Point spar 
of corresponding screen size. For light stand¬ 
ards the concrete for the entire post is composed 


168 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


of 1 part white portland cement, 1 part each of 
No. 3, No. 3p2 and No. 4 Crown Point mica spar 
and y 2 part crushed pink granite. 

Concrete Wall Coping. 

Molds for the manufacture of concrete wall 
coping are now available. The process of manu¬ 
facture is similar to the manufacture of concrete 
roofing tile. Coarser aggregate can be used than 
for roofing tile. Color can be applied by sprin¬ 
kling on the surface of the coping and troweling 
into the concrete or the color can be mixed with 
the concrete. In general, satisfactory results will 
be obtained by .following roof tile practice. Con¬ 
crete wall coping can be sold with most orders for 
concrete block. This product is especially salable 
with block for garages. Concrete coping can be 
applied to any type of masonry wall. 


CHAPTER XVI. 


CONCRETE ARCHITECTURAL OR 
TRIMSTONE. 

Concrete trimstone or, as it is sometimes called, 
architectural trimstone, is the name given to 
concrete units which are used in some way to 



Somerset Apartment Hotel, Chicago, Trimmed With 
Concrete Trimstone. 


trim, ornament, embellish or perhaps build the 
entire face of structures. 

'If used only to ornament, then such stone 
takes the form of trim details of windows and 
doorways, such as sills and lintels or corner¬ 
stone, in combination with ordinary brick or 
other masonry, or medallions set into the face of 
a wall, or such architectural details as porch 













170 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


columns, rails and spindles. Usually designs for 
such ornamental stone are furnished by the archi¬ 
tect just as he would furnish designs for natural 
cut stone. 

Concrete architectural trimstone must be dis- 



Jackson Shore Apartments, Chicago, Concrete Trim 

Stone Used. 


tinguished from ordinary concrete block in that 
a certain pattern of trimstone may be produced 
but once for some exclusive purpose, therefore 







TRIMSTONE 


171 


is a distinctive product. While within certain 
limitations trimstone can be produced in ma¬ 


chines, the product so 
made is confined 
largely to a pattern 
which is used instead 
of natural cut stone 
for moldings or 
courses such as water- 
tables. 

Commercially archi¬ 
tectural trimstone is 
manufactured of a 
relatively wet mix of 
molds made exclusive¬ 
ly for the pattern be¬ 
ing cast. Sand, wood, 
plaster, concrete, glue 
and steel molds are all 
used in the manufac¬ 
ture of concrete trim¬ 
stone. Sand molds 
are not unlike the 
flasks used in foun¬ 
dries in casting metal. 
Naturally a sand mold 
can be used but once. 

Glue molds are sus¬ 
ceptible of use several 
times. 

Steel, concrete and 
wood molds permit 
indefinite use and if 
carefully handled are 
essentially indestruc¬ 
tible. 

Plaster molds per¬ 
mit of many casts be¬ 
ing made if carefully 



Concrete Panel Used Above 
Main Entrance Jackson 
Shore Apartment. 












172 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


handled, but after some considerable use require 
patching up in order that they may produce per¬ 
fect specimens. 

The making of molds for the casting of 



Ornamental Concrete Balustrade and Columns. 


architectural trimstone is not a job for the un¬ 
skilled worker. Rather, it falls to the skill of the 
experienced wood or metal worker who has spe¬ 
cialized in what is known as patternmaking. It 
is therefore necessary that a plant intending to 
engage in the manufacture of trimstone look firs^ 








TRIMSTONE 


173 



for a competent model or patternmaker. Once 
the pattern is made, if a permanent mold is de¬ 
sired, the pattern serves as a guide for the foun¬ 
dry that is to make a cast-iron or steel mold. 

Most first-class trimstone plants are equipped 
with the machinery common to the average 
natural stone working plant. They must have 
stone planers, saws, polishers and the tools and 
tooling machines used in the dressing of natural 


Norristone Used to Beautify Entrance to Public Bath at 

Rochester, N. Y. 

* 

stones, which means also that thev must ha^ye 
workmen competent to make the most of such 
tools and equipment. 

One of the largest manufacturers of archi¬ 
tectural trimstone ruakes considerable use of 
molds formed of channel irons in sizes of from 
2 to 18 ins. wide and from 4 to 8 ft. long. Prop¬ 
erly combined, such molds provide great flexibil¬ 
ity. Channel irons are held together by rods of 
different lengths at the ends, while wood or plas¬ 
ter inserts, plain or molded as desired, determine 
the width, length and design of the unit to be 
cast. The work is poured face down and can be 




















174 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


solid or hollow, surfaced with special material 
on any one side or on all four sides, if the 
volume of the piece being cast makes it more 
economical to use a concrete mixture containing 
cheaper aggregates than would be used in facing 
the product. 

Electric rubbing wheels are used for dress- 



Medusa White Cement Concrete Mantel Indicative of 

What Can Be Done. 


ing the product to a smooth or even polished 
finish. Acid wash is used to remove cement coat¬ 
ing from aggregate particles and to produce a 
surface texture rivaling the finest natural stone. 

Concrete of proper age can be treated just 
like any natural stone by using the same tools 
and machinery. This being a fact, it is-evident' 
that the manufacturer who proposes to specialize 
in concrete trimstone must be prepared with 
plant equipment and skilled workmen to compete 






























TRIM STONE 


175 


with sculptured work of the be i -t stone cutters. 

In other respects, the manufacture of con¬ 
crete trimstone is not unlike the manufacture of 
any other concrete product. It resolves itself 
into suitable forms, facing mixtures to produce 
the color and texture desired, and backing of the 



Concrete Trimstone Was Used in the Construction of 
This School Building in Davenport, la., the Name¬ 
plate Also Being Made of Concrete. 

face with ordinary concrete mixtures where 
economy results therefrom and steam-curing of 
the product. Following this come those manipu¬ 
lations necessary to dress up imperfections of 
surface or give such tooled surface effect as ma> 
be desired. 









CHAPTER XVII. 


CONCRETE FLOOR TILE. 

Concrete floor tile have been used in tremen¬ 
dous quantity in Spain and the Latin-American 
countries—in fact in South America the majority 
of floors are covered with tile of one kind or an¬ 
other. In the United States the use of concrete 
tile for floors is constantly growing as the advan¬ 
tages of a clean, sanitary and fireproof floor are 
better realized. 

The Roldan-Cammarata Tile Co., St. Louis, 
Mo., to whom we are indebted for most of the 
information contained in this chapter, is one of 
the few manufacturers of concrete floor tile in 
this country who uses the same process as was 
originated in Spain and the Latin-American 
countries. 

The manufacturing process is an interesting 
one since the tile in the process of manufacture 
are compacted under great hydraulic pressure. 
The tile, which are made in the most elaborate and 
intricate color designs, are 8 by 8 ins. in size by 
7'S in. thick. The face of the tile is made of a 
rich white portland cement mixture colored to the 
shade required. After the colored cement which 
forms the surface is deposited in the proper places 
in the design, the balance of the mold is filled with 
ordinary cement mortar mixed rather dry and the 
whole tile is then subjected to hydraulic pressure 
of 4500 lbs. per sq. in. which makes a total pres¬ 
sure on the tile of 288,000 lbs. or 144 tons. This 
pressure compacts the tile into an extremely hard, 
dense form so that it can be immediately removed 
from the mold. 

Laying Cement Tile. 

The tile are laid in a mortar bed made of the 



CONCRETE FLOOR TILE 177 

following proportions: 1 part portland cement, 
1 part hydrated lime and 5 parts of sand. Before 
laying the tile, soak them from 10 to 20 minutes 



Section of Concrete Tile Floor Showing Border Tile and 
Floor Tile of Beautiful Design. 


in water after which allow them to dry about the 
same length of time, the object being to have them 
damp and not wet. Then proceed with the laying; 
beginning at the center of the room so that oppo- 





















178 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


site sides will require the same number of tile, 
including the full width outer border if one is 
desired, and if any space is left that cannot be 
filled with 8 by 8-in. outer border it should be 
filled with solid color tile (to match the border 
or outer border) cut to the required width, except 
when the space is 1 in. or less in width, in which 
case it is best filled with a well-mixed mortar 
made of equal parts of portland cement and fine, 
sharp sand, colored to match. In filling this space 
with mortar, be careful to fill it to a level with 
the tile. 

To Cut or Divide the Tile. 

Either draw a line on the tile where it is to be 
cut and lightly chisel this line with a small tool 
until the tile is divided, or place the tile on a pile 
of sand, and on the tile, parallel with the line, 
lay a hardwood straight-edge. Then with a ham¬ 
mer sharply strike the straight-edge until the tile 
is divided. 

Finishing. 

This work should be done from boards placed 
on the floor to avoid possible loosening of the tile 
before the cement is hard. Six or 7 hours after 
the tile have been laid, wash the floor with plain 
water. Then fill the joints with a thin mixture 
of water and portland cement by sweeping over 
the floor with a broom. Before this cement be¬ 
comes dry sprinkle a white, dry sawdust over the 
floor and rub with dry excelsior until the tile 
are well cleaned. Do not allow anyone to walk 
on the floor during the first 24 hours after it is 
finished. 

Preservation. 

The first step in this direction is to keep the 
floor clean by washing it often. New laid tile 
sometimes appear unequal in color and many 
show white stains. This is due to the dampness 


•CONCRETE FLOOR TILE 179 

retained by the tile when setting and the salts 
contained in the cement which come to the surface 
and will in a few days disappear. Floor should be 
washed often (in the beginning) with plain water 
and soap (never use acid). After the floor has 
been laid 2 months and has been well washed and 
dry, apply a very thin wax such as is used to 
polish wood floors, and rub the wax off with a 
dry rag until the tile show a polish. Two appli¬ 
cations of this wax about 6 months apart will be 
sufficient as the tile develop a natural sheen or 
gloss which improves with age. 

Ordering. 

W hen ordering, a detailed sketch with measure¬ 
ments of floor to be covered should be sent, thus 
enabling the factory to ship the exact number of 
centers, corners, borders and outer borders re¬ 
quired. 

Non-Slip Concrete Tile. 

The grinding wheel, since the development of 
this remarkable electric furnace abrasive, “Alun¬ 
dum,” has revolutionized machining methods in 
the metal-working plants, has made possible the 
use of certain alloys, and has given precision with 
rapid production. And now, reaching a high 
position in the metal industry, alundum abrasive 
has entered the building field. The manufactur- 
ers of alundum products are making floor tile and 
stair treads in which the alundum abrasive and 
Portland cement are the principal ingredients. 
The feature of the products is a slip-proof and 
practically non-wearing surface. A process of 
manufacture has been developed in which the use 
of colored marble chips gives unlimited artistic 
effects with color schemes which satisfy the vary¬ 
ing tastes of the architects. 

The same qualities of toughness and hardness 
which have made alundum abrasive an efficient 


.180 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


material for machining steels and steel alloys are 
now making it an efficient material for use in tile 
and treads for walkway surfaces where durability 
combined with slip-proof surfaces is desirable. 

Carborundum is used in the manufacture of 
non-slip floor tile and stair treads. This hard, 
black material is mixed with the surface concrete 
and after the tile are cured the surface may be 
etched with a muriatic acid solution to expose the 
carborundum crystals which are diamond hard 
and although black, sparkle like jewels. 

Equipment and Methods. 

The equipment used in making concrete floor 
tile must be designed for the purpose, be of ample 
power and strength and the methods used must 
be based on experience. Materials must be of 
excellent quality, especially the pigments used for 
coloring the surface. Curing must be carried on 
a sufficient length of time for thorough hydration 
of the cement content. 

Ordinarily it will be found advisable to pur¬ 
chase floor tile from an established plant and to 
sell it with other building units. The manufac¬ 
ture of concrete floor tile must either be con¬ 
ducted as a separate business or as a separate de¬ 
partment under the supervision of an experienced 
foreman. Concrete floor tile is one building unit 
that is not limited by any shipping radius. Floor 
tile made in Mobile are used in Chicago and cities 
farther north. Floor tile made in Illinois have 
been Shipped to both the Atlantic and Pacific sea¬ 
boards and to Cuba. It will therefore be seen 
that the market possibilities are great. 

In the manufacture of the highest grade of floor 
tile colored cement has been used. This cement is 
produced in but few plants which are properly 
equipped to combine pigments of high quality 
with portland cement in the proper proportions. 


CONCRETE FLOOR TILE 


181 


The manufacture of colored portland cement is 
not a simple matter as it is frequently necessary 
to duplicate shades of color on previous orders. 



A. Tiled Court Adds to the Beauty of a Concrete Home. 


To produce many shades of various colors ex¬ 
treme accuracy is necessary in proportioning the 
materials. Care and skill are required in the in¬ 
corporation of the pigments with the cement. 

Concrete floor tile are also usable on flat roofs 
such as are provided in houses of the Moorish or 
Spanish types. Such floors should be laid to ob¬ 
tain tight joints and should be as firmly bedded 
as for ordinary floors. Where black joints are 
desired between tile, which are set intentionally 
with wide joints, either black cement mortar, or 
used. Floor tile can also be used as ornamental 
tile for facing inside or outside walls. 





CHAPTER XVIII. 


CONCRETE FLOOR UNITS. 

There has been an unsatisfied demand for Con¬ 
crete floor units which in themselves, when as¬ 
sembled, will result in a fire resistant floor or 
which can be used in combination with reinforced 
concrete floors. Necessarily lightness and fire 
resistance are highly desirable. 

We may build houses with fire resistant or even 
fireproof walls and if the floors, partitions, ceilings 



Assembly of Slabs and I-Beams in Centerless Concrete 

Floor. 


and roofs are inflammable or of low fire resist¬ 
ance, the resultant structure is an excellent fur¬ 
nace if a fire starts in the building. To get the 
utmost fire resistance value in a house; all parts 
should be highly fire resistant. The partitions 
should be of fire resistant materials and also floors 
and roof. The floor has offered heretofore a dif¬ 
ficult problem to solve in connection with dwell¬ 
ings. In factories, industrial buildings, office 
buildings and large ‘apartment houses recourse has 
been had to reinforced concrete floors which have 
been made lighter through the use of metal pans 
in the form work or the use of terra cotta floor 
tile. 















FLOOR UNITS 


183 


Cinder concrete floor tile have been developed 
for use in reinforced concrete floor work and the 
future will probably see other units designed to 
serve the same purpose. The Sawyer system of 
construction is used for floors and the Nelson 
system of obtaining reinforced monolithic con¬ 
struction with a minimum of form work on floors 



“American” Units Being Assembled—Units for the Ceiling 

in Place. 


has been used successfully. Many of the systems 
of concrete lumber provide for floor construction. 

Centerless Concrete Floor Construction in 

England. 

That our English cousins are not behind us in 
the development of concrete products is indicated 
by the centerless concrete floor units produced by 
Frederick Rings & Partners, London, England. 
This floor, which has been the subject of world 
wide patent applications, is designed for use in 
steel-framed buildings. It possesses several novel 
and interesting features, as the illustration shows, 
and has the great merits of low cost and rapidity 
in manufacture and erection. 

The floor consists of three precast units—an 
upper flanged slab, a lower flanged slab and a 
plain slab—and is carried on rolled steel I-beams 




184 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


spaced at 3-ft. centers. The precast units can be 
made in molds or by means of a casting machine, 
either in a central workshop or at the building 
site. Reinforcement is inserted in the upper slabs 
to suit the floor loads to be carried, and in all the 
slabs as may be desirable to eliminate the danger 
of breakage in handling. 

Normal width of the lower slabs is 18 ins. and 
this dimension equals the sum of the widths of 



Placing Two Intermediate Units in the “American" Sys¬ 
tem of Floor Construction. 

the two upper slabs, one flanged and one plain. 
The process of construction is as follows: 

First, an upper flanged slab is placed in position on 
the I-beams. Then a lower slab is raised from below 
and slid into place under the upper slab, the ledges on 
its flanges engaging with those on the flanges of the 
upper slab, so that the lower slab hangs from the upper 
slab and projects several inches beyond it on ea>ch side. 
This process is repeated until a complete bay is laid. 
At this stage the ceiling is continuous, but the floor 
itself consists of a succession of slabs and gaps. In 
these, gaps are exposed the I-beams and the upstanding 
flanges of the lower slabs. 

When two or more bays have been completed to this 
stage, the joints in the ceiling slabs are pointed and 



FLOOR UNITS 


185 


cement grout is poured in from above through the gaps 
to fill the space between the ceiling slabs and the lower 
flange of the I-beam. Then fine cement concrete is 
filled in, surrounding the I-beam up to the level of its 
top flange. The placing of the plain upper slabs to fill 
the gaps in the floor completes the work. 

Advantages claimed for this floor are: 

(a) No centering required. 

(b) Floor 'can be used to carry load as soon as the 
upper slabs are laid. 

(c) Light weight of individual parts. 

(d) Minimum of finishing work to complete floor 
and ceiling. 



Four Intermediate Units in Place on Top of Ceiling Units 
in the “American” System. 

(e) Concrete covering for the protection of the steel 
placed with utmost facility, rapidity and certainty. 

(f) Rapidity of manufacture of members. A cast¬ 
ing machine can turn out up to 50 slabs per hour. 

(g) Continuous hollow spaces throughout floor for 
ventilation, heating, electric cables, etc., also makes floor 
soundproof. 

(h) Cost of floor and ceiling completely finished is 
less than by any other system. 

In this system of floor construction the several 
units can be made of concretes varying in charac¬ 
teristics if desired. The upper units can be made 




186 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


of aggregate which will result in strong, dense 
concrete while the ceiling slab can be made of 
concrete in which light weight aggregates are used 
to obtain a light weight slab that will take plaster 
readily. Such light weight aggregates would in¬ 
clude cinders, crushed coke, granulated slag and 
Haydite. 

Judicious use of aggregates and correct pro¬ 
portioning of concrete mixtures will result in a 
system of floor construction that is fire resistive. 



Two Floor Units—Ceiling Units Reversed—in Place. The 
Cored Voids Are Plainly Visible. 


sound proof and which will protect the steel 
framing. 

The American System. 

What will be termed herein “The American 
System is a new development in concrete floor 
construction and was designed to meet the de¬ 
mand for an inexpensive, fire resistant concrete 
floor unit which could be easily handled. The 
accompanying illustrations show units which can 
be made for floor spans up to 20 ft. There should 




FLOOR UNITS 


187 


not be any great difficulty in manufacturing the 
“American” units, as similar products have been 
made of concrete for many years. 

Lightness is obtained by using thin slabs of 
concrete, the slabs having voids which do not 
penetrate through to the exposed surface. The 
voids in the intermediate slabs may be cored 
straight through if desired. Steel wire reinforce¬ 
ment is used to obtain tensile strength in the 
slabs. 

The principal characteristic of this system is 
the exactness with which the slabs may be made. 
Each unit is a duplicate pf another which tends 
to simplify the problem of laying and therefore 
economizes labor. All units are interchangeable. 

American System. 

The “American” system can be used in com¬ 
bination with reinforced concrete beams or with 
steel beams ordinarily used for floor members in 
all types of buildings. Where openings are re¬ 
quired for conduits, wires, pipe, etc., the thin 
covering over the cored voids can be easily broken 
through, or the conduits, etc., can be laid in the 
trough formed by the inclined intermediate mem¬ 
bers. A floor slab or several floor slabs can be 
removed temporarily and be easily and quickly 
replaced. 

Any desired finish can be given to the ceiling 
or to the floor. This system does not require 
any special treatment to adapt it to the present 
practice in floor construction. L T nits can be han¬ 
dled by one or two laborers. 

In general the advantages of the “American” 
system are the same as are outlined for the system 
designed by Frederick Rings & Partners, London, 
In fact all concrete floor systems should possess 
these advantages in common if they are to meet 
with the favor of architects and builders. 


CHAPTER XIX. 


CONCRETE ROOFING TILE. 

Within the past few years concrete roofing tile 
have come into very general favor. This is due 
to the increasing desire for non-inflammable roofs 
and to the fact that concrete roofing tile have 
demonstrated that they are an economical, beau- 



French Type of Concrete Roofing Tile. 


tiful and permanent roof covering. In many 
localities the use of inflammable roofing materials 
is prohibited by ordinance. This is true of prac¬ 
tically every large city. Many cities and towns 
of only moderate size are falling into line. At . 



Spanish Type of Concrete Roofing Tile. 


this writing some 150 ordinances are in force pro¬ 
hibiting the use of inflammable roofings. 

The market for concrete roofing tile, in the 
United States, is steadily increasing due to the 



ROOFING TILE 


189 


strong fight that is being waged to reduce the fire 
hazard. It is estimated by the National Board of 
Fire Underwriters that 20% of dwelling house 
fires recorded in 1917 resulted primarily from the 
inflammable roof exposure. Concrete roofing tile 
is one of the most fire resistant types of roofing 
material known today. The tile are easily mar¬ 
keted because of the moderate first cost, extremely 
low maintenance cost, and attractive appearance 



This Modest Bungalow Is Protected by a Fire Resistant 

Concrete Tile Roof. 


which make the tile suitable for use on the most 
ornate or the most simple structure. 

Any new material of this sort must prove its 
worth before it can get a foothold. This has been 
so successfully done that today roofing tile plants 
are being established in all sections of the United 
States. Successful plants are operating in such 
cities as Cleveland, Newark, Indianapolis, Chi¬ 
cago, Philadelphia, Rochester, N. Y., St. Louis, 
Kansas City, New Orleans, Denver and Santa 
Barbara, Cal. In those cities the business of 
manufacturing concrete roofing tile is well estab- 









190 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


lished and many of the plants have accumulated 
orders beyond their present capacity to produce. 

Market. 

The greatest field for the small or residence 
type of roofing tile is in the re-roofing of old 
houses. The number of houses to be re-roofed 
each year often is determined approximately by 
dividing the number of houses within a plant 
shipping radius by 20, the average life of roofs 
other than tile. A survey of any community will 



Concrete Roof Tile Are Especially Adapted to Concrete 
Block or Tile Dwellings Finished with Stucco. 


show a great potential market of which a plant 
need obtain only a small percentage in order to 
operate at full capacity. 

Marketing. 

Where possible, one of the best ways to dis¬ 
pose of roofing tile is by direct sale to roofing 
tile contractors. It is often difficult to get con¬ 
tractors to use this material in communities where 
it is new and in most localities it is necessary for 








ROOFING TILE 


191 


the rooting tile manufacturer to introduce his 
product by laying roofs complete or by organizing 
a subsidiary tile roofing company to sell and lay 
the complete roofs. By demonstrating in a given 
locality that concrete roofing tile are satisfactory, 
it will not be long before tile roofers will want 
to buy tile direct. Roofing tile producers should 
extensively advertise their product, using locai 
newspapers, circulars, and other methods. 

Ordinarily, it costs $1 to $2 per square to load 
and haul tile from the plant to the job and where 
it is to be applied to tight board sheathing cov- 



Cross Sectional View of Typical Concrete Tile Roof Where 
the French Tile Are Used. 


ered with a good grade of roofing felt, the cost 
of laying the felt and necessary wood strips which 
hold the tile on the roof will be from $2.50 to $3 
a square. The cost of labor for laying the tile, 
felt and strips will vary from $4 to $6 per square, 
according to wage scales and labor efficiency. 

Red or gray concrete tile roofs in place sell for 
from $22 per square up. Green colored tile 
usually bring $5 per square more than red or 
gray tile. This difference in price is due to the 
cost of quality of pigments necessary to secure a 
satisfactory green color. 






192 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

Market Possibilities. 

The average layman or products man has no 
real conception of the total or gross annual vol¬ 
ume of the various pitched roofing materials man¬ 
ufactured,‘sold and applied annually in the United 
States. In round numbers it is approximately 
55,000,000 squares for new and re-roofing work 
(a square is 100 sq. ft), or a gross volume of 
about $440,000,000 per year. 

Taking it for granted that modern merchandis¬ 
ing methods would be used with special emphasis 
on quality and service and assuming that manu- 
lacturers of various other types of roofing were 
also using good selling and service methods, it is 



fair to assume that concrete roofing tile manu¬ 
facturers could get their share of this business. 
Assuming a low estimate, say 10%, of this busi¬ 
ness, or 5,000,000 squares a year, could be ob¬ 
tained by roof tile manufacturers. 

Just what does 5,000,000 squares of concrete 
roofing tile mean? It means 250,000 average 
roofs, like those of the average American home 















ROOFING TILE 


193 


as built today. Production of tile would have to 
be 1000 average size roofs per day for 250 work¬ 
ing days per year, to produce sufficient concrete 
roofing tile to supply this estimated amount of 
business. 

The profits on this business, because of the non¬ 
supply are now lost on most of this 5,000,000 
squares of roofing, which if only $2 per square 
profit were made (which is low) would mean 
$10,000,000 profit per year, which should be in the 



Partial View of a Storage Yard Filled with Roofcrete Tile 
Ready for Delivery in the Busy Season. 


bank to the credit of the products manufacturers 
now in business. This branch of the concrete 
products industry can be expanded many times. 

The raw materials required for this amount of 
tile every day would be 1,500,000 tons of good, 
clean, sharp sand and 2,500,000 barrels of port- 
land cement. Many products plants operators 
own their own sand pits and are distributors of 
Portland cement and would make an additional 
profit. Large as these figures may seem, they are 


























194 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


concrete and are within the reach of energetic 
manufacturers, now. 

One of the most important factors in making 
and selling ornamental concrete roofing tile is, that 



Concrete Roof Tile Add to the Beauty and Value of 
Homes of Various Types of Construction. 


no resistance is met from building codes. This 
means much in sales possibilities—A ready market 
and no sales resistance. What more could a man¬ 
ufacturer desire? 

Color. 

Success in the manufacture of concrete roofing- 
tile is primarily dependent upon permanent color. 
Great difficulty has been experienced in producing 
roofing tile of colors that would not fade. Ex¬ 
perience has shown that satisfactory colors are 
commercially available and when used intelligently 
a first quality non-fading product can be made. 
Color pigments must be of pure metallic oxides 
and should be purchased from reputable concerns 
which can guarantee colors suitable for this pur¬ 
pose. Oxide of iron is used for red and chro- ' 
mium oxide for green. While red and green col¬ 
ored tile are in demand, the introduction of a so- 








ROOFING TILE 


195 


called “silver gray” roofing tile has met with 
popular favor in localities where it is made. This 
silver gray color is obtained by using carefully 



Adaptability of Concrete Roof Tile of Various Designs of 
Roofs Is Indicated in This Home. 


selected aggregates without the use of color pig¬ 
ments and takes advantage of the natural charac¬ 
ter of concrete as a material. Concrete tile have 
a distinctive advantage in this shade inasmuch as 
it is impossible to imitate it in clay. This color 
reflects light and heat to a much greater degree 
than darker shades, keeping the house cooler in 
summer. 

Plant. 

To manufacture concrete roofing tile properly 
requires a substantial plant designed particularly 
to conserve labor, one of the largest items of ex¬ 
pense in concrete roofing tile production. The 
machine, or machines, should be so placed as to 
eliminate every possible unnecessary movement 
by the workmen. Some automatic machines are 
so designed that where the mixer is elevated the 













196 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


material may be emptied by gravity into a hopper 
on the tile machine. Provision should be made 
in the building for storage of cement and aggre¬ 
gate, as well as for colors. 

Tile Machines. 

Roofing tile machines are quite simple and 
standard in design. Two general types are avail- 



Roofing Tile Made on an Automatic Machine—The Details 
of Construction are Apparent. 

able—hand trowel and automatic power tamp. 
The hand trowel machine will produce about 375 
tile per day or 2 x / 2 squares. A plant usually con¬ 
sists of a group of three to five machines for reg¬ 
ular tile and one or more machines for specials. 
Most of the hand machines form the concrete on 
metal pallets by means of a troweling motion and 
color is applied by sprinkling over the surface 
of the tile and is troweled into the surface of the 
tile. 

Automatic machines have a continuous chain 
horizontal conveyor onto which pallets are fed. 














ROOFING TILE 


197 


The conveyor carries the pallet under a hopper 
containing the aggregate, the pallet is filled and 
then passes under a pressure device either in the 
shape of a series of rolls or a small continuous 
light tamping arrangement. The pallet then travels 
under a color hopper where color is applied to 
the surface of the tile. The unit is then carried 
from the conveyor and stacked in racks for cur- 



Concrete Tile Roof on “Thrift Cottage” at the Own Your 
Home Exposition, Chicago, 1924. 

ing. The automatic machines have a capacity of 
between 20 and 40 squares per day. 

A recent invention produced by a prominent 
firm in the concrete tile machinery business pro¬ 
vides for the automatic delivery of concrete to the 
pallet, automatic tamping and the application of a 
wet colored concrete surfacing material which 
bonds to the body of the tile and is troweled to a 









198 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


smooth finish. It is claimed that homogeneous tile 
is produced which has an impervious surface. The 
resulting tile is fully equal if not superior to the 
competing clay product and usually sells at the 
same price. 

Aggregates. 

Aggregates must be well graded and free from 
lime or soluble alkaline salts and organic matter. 
Aggregates should be graded so as to pass a No. 6 
screen. Extreme care in the selection of aggre¬ 
gates is necessary for this class of work due to the 
thin cross section of the product. To get uni¬ 
form strength, it is necessary that advantage be 
taken of every approved concreting practice. 
Where clean and well graded aggregate is used, 
the color correctly applied and the tile properly 
cured, the danger of hair-checking will be elim¬ 
inated. The mix to be used for this character of 
work should not be leaner than 1 :3. 

Size and Weight of Tile. 

The average tile size is 9 3/16 by 14^4 ins., 
and weighs, about lbs. per unit. To cover 1 
square of roof, 150 tile are usually required. An 
average dwelling roof contains about 16 to 25 
squares. From 108 to 150 tile are required per 
square depending on the size of the tile. 

Manufacturing Cost. 

The manufacture of concrete roofing tile should 
be a very . profitable business. Manufacturing 
costs leave a very comfortable margin of profit 
and still permit of selling tile at a price lower than 
competitive materials of similar quality. For the 
purpose of illustrating the method by which man¬ 
ufacturing costs can be estimated, the following 
outline is presented. The figures quoted herein 
are very general and must be corrected for every 
locality as to price of materials and labor and also 


ROOFING TILE 199 

corrected according to type of equipment pur¬ 
chased. r \ o make enough tile for approximately 



•Stock of 3000 Squares of French and Spanish Concrete 
Roof Tile Ready for Spring Delivery. 

four roofs per week, an estimate of equipment re¬ 
quired and manufacturing costs is presented: 

For a plant equipped with hand machines hav¬ 
ing a capacity of about 11 squares of roof a day 
of 8 hours an investment for equipment installed 



Example of Fireproof Concrete Tile Roof. 

including a building would average approximately 
$16,000 to 'which must be added cost of land. 
Working capital must be provided in ample 



















200 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


amount to keep the plant operating at least during 
the open construction and preferably for the full 
12 months of each year. Not less than $5000 
working capital should be available. 

For a plant equipped with power machines the 
cost of equipment and building will be, without 
land, $25,000. Not less than $10,000 working 



Part of an Exhibit of Concrete Roofing 
Tile at the 1923 Chicago Own Your 
Home Exhibition. 


capital should be available. This investment 
should be sufficient to produce 28 squares of roof 
tile in an 8-hour day. 

It is advisable for prospective manufacturer of 
roof tile to get from machine and equipment man¬ 
ufacturers quotations for a complete plant in¬ 
cluding all accessory equipment and tools. 

















CHAPTER XX. 


CEMENT ASBESTOS SHINGLES. 

Cement asbestos shingles are composed es¬ 
sentially of portland cement and asbestos fibre, 
about 75 % of the content being portland cement. 
They are of Austrian invention, and large 
amounts of capital and effort have been ex¬ 
pended in perfecting their commercial produc¬ 
tion. We believe full credit is due Dr. Richard 
V. Mattison of Ambler, Pa., for his efforts in 
this field. 

After exceptionally thorough mixing, which 
is accomplished in machines somewhat resem¬ 
bling a pulp beater commonly used in paper 
mills, the pulpy mixture of cement and asbestos 
is dropped on a wide moving felt conveyor, 
whence it is conveyed between heavy rollers to 
a pressure roll, where successive layers are laid 
upon this roll from the belt. The material is 
thus built up in piles. When the desired thick¬ 
ness is reached, the sheets, still wet, are cut off 
and run through a cutter where the shingles are 
cut from the sheet into uniform sizes. A num¬ 
ber of other operations are performed, the shin¬ 
gles being pressed to remove the bulk of the 
moisture and produce a smooth surface. They 
are then seasoned, trimmed and drilled. 

Cement asbestos shingles are approximately 
3/16 in. thick. They average in weight about 
435 lbs. per square (100 sq. ft.) for the Ameri¬ 
can type, and about 275 lbs. per square for the 
French or diagonal type. They are made in a 
variety of shades and are commonly furnished 
in standard colors of grav. red. brown, dark 
slate and green. They are available in various 
shapes, commonly furnished in rectangular and 



202 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


diamond-shaped shingle forms. The application 
of these shingles is so simple that any carpenter, 
skilled in applying wooden shingles, or any 
roofer, can apply them in minimum time, as all 
nail holes are punched in asbestos shingles dur¬ 
ing the course of manufacture. 

As stated before, the manufacture of cement 
asbestos shingles requires heavy machinery and 
an extensive plant. Therefore it is not prac¬ 
ticable for small plants to be established for the 
manufacture of cement-asbestos shingles, at least 
at this day. It is within the bounds of possibility 
that processes will be discovered whereby this 
type of roof covering may be made in less ex¬ 
pensive and less extensive plants. 


CHAPTER XXL 


ORNAMENTAL CONCRETE PRODUCTS. 

Among the many objects made of concrete 
that may be classified under this heading are 
concrete flower boxes, urns, vases, concrete lawn 
seats, drinking fountains, sundial pedestals and 



Concrete Ornamental Panel of High Artistic Quality. 


similar objects which combine the artistic with 
the useful. 

There is considerable difference between the 
molding of structural units such as brick and 
block and the successful casting of ornamental 
designs in concrete. Very small imperfections 
that would not be noticed in a block or brick 
seriously impair the appearance of ornamental 
wares. Most of such products are cast by using 
a selected facing mixture backed with an ordi¬ 
nary concrete mixture, not only for the purpose 








204 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


of securing a better appearance on the face, but 
to secure economy that could not be attained 
were the selected materials used for the entire 
mixture. 

A great deal of the success in ornamental 
products depends upon the molds and the meth- 



Good Example of Ornamental Concrete at Edge of Gar¬ 
den Lake. 


ods by which they are filled. The concrete mix¬ 
ture must be fairly wet so that it will flow to and 
fill all the lines of the mold as well as produce 
an even texture or grain to the cast. The work 
must be dense and well bonded together so that 
every part has ample strength to support its own 













ORNAMENTAL PRODUCTS 


205 


weight no matter how slender or how far it 
projects beyond the face of the design. This, 
however, is not intended to imply that orna- 



ln a Setting Such as This Ornamental Concrete Units 
Add to the Beauty of the Landscape. 



Concrete Pool and Garden Seats* Castana Estate, Rose- 

mont, Pa. 


mental products in general need be of the same 
strength as so-called building units, such as block 
or brick. In fact, the reverse is quite true, and 













206 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


this makes it permissible in many cases to omit 
coarse aggregate entirely, especially where thin 
sections are being cast, such as the side of a 
flower box, vase or urn. 

Slabs or lawn seats must be reinforced. Us¬ 
ually this is done by using round steel rods. 
Sometimes also it is advisable to reinforce large 
urns and vases with mesh fabric or something 
like poultry netting. Molds must be so made 
that they will separate along a sufficient number 
of lines to permit withdrawal from the object 
without friction or without breaking any of the 



Pergola of Four Seasons With Concrete Statues and 

Vases. 


decoration. For example, the mold in which a 
fluted column is to be cast may have to be 
divided into eight or more parts. 

After proper attention has been given to se¬ 
lecting materials and filling the molds, by far the 
greatest success in the manufacture of orna¬ 
mental concrete products comes from proper 
observance of curing requirements. Great variety 




ORNAMENTAL PRODUCTS 207 

of surface finish is possible through the selection 
of suitable materials, or by various combinations 
of different materials. The greatest measure of 



Carl J. Nilsson, Chicago Sculptor, Engaged in Modeling 

Concrete. 

success comes only from long experience and 
conscientious observance of minute details, and 
the cultivation of individual ingenuity- 



CHAPTER XXII. 


PLASTER AND GLUE MOLDS 



Cast stone or ornamental concrete includes 

such items as friezes, 
panels, figures, capi¬ 
tals, brackets, rosettes, 
vases and inscriptions 
in addition to other 
ornamental objects. 

The making of 
models and patterns is 
a distinct branch of 
this work and de¬ 
mands a long time to 
become an efficient 
worker, especially in 
the modeling of orna¬ 
ments, but the making 
of a good practical 
plaster-paris mold is 
almost as much a 
piece of art as the 
model. For this rea¬ 
son we find there are 
very few men that 
are considered good 
mold makers. 

The plaster mold is 
to be preferred for 
standard stock orna¬ 
ments. It will, when 

Detail of Concrete Statue piOperly made and 
Forming Pergola Columns, handled, remain good 

Castana Estate. f 0 r many casts, 

whereas, when casting 
in sand molds a number of molds must be made 
right along, besides other little drawbacks. 






ORNAMENTAL PRODUCTS 
Plaster Molds. 


209 



The process of making a plaster mold is slow, 
as it is necessary to make the pieces with a view 
to draft and in several places when it will not 
hurt the modeling or 
general effect, it may 
be necessary to judi¬ 
ciously fill in some 
deep undercut. 

When making mold 
pieces the model must 
be faced with a couple 
of coats of thin shel¬ 
lac, put on with a soft 
brush so as not to 
hurt the face of the 
model if made in clay 
or other soft materia) 
and after the shellac 
is hard, brushed ovei 
with some thin oil or 
prepared grease and 
chalk. It will be neces¬ 
sary to provide for 
main seams and at the 
same time tie the sev¬ 
eral pieces together. 

For instance, in mak¬ 
ing a piece mold over 
a full capital, one would have to make the case (a 
layer of plaster outside of the small pieces) with a 
seam at each corner of the capital and place in¬ 
side of each of these quarter sections of the case 
the small pieces previously made. Make the 
several pieces and mark them by letters or nu- 
merials, which of course are reproduced in the 
case when pouring the plaster over the pieces for 
this purpose. The sides of each piece as made 
are shellaced and greased to prevent sticking to- 


Concrete Garden Seat With 
Griffin Side Supports, 
Castana Estate. 





210 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


gether. When taken off the model the different 
pieces are cleaned, dried, shellaced and greased 
before using. A plaster mold can be used either 
for tamping or pouring and can be made for 
almost anything from a pin to a statue. 

Glue Molds. 

As earlier stated, a glue mold is handier as it 



Concrete Garden Seat of Simple Design, Durable and 

Attractive. 



Concrete Garden Seat of Beautiful Design. 


requires less skill and time in making. There are 
more experienced men who have handled molds 
for plaster casting, but you will find very few 













ORNAMENTAL PRODUCTS 211 

having any knowledge of treating glue for con¬ 
crete casting so that the glue molds will last for 
some time and be used repeatedly. The glue 
mold is handy when it comes to turning out a few 


Park Bench With Concrete Supports in a Public Park. 

replicas of undercut work and can always with 
small expense be poured new again. 

The usual way of making a glue mold after 
preparing the model the same as for plaster mold 
is first to cover the model or pattern with a layer 
of clay the thickness of which is dependent on 
the size of the model and the number of replicas 
to be made. 




212 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


A glue mold for concrete casting should be 
made somewhat heavier than a similar mold for 
casting plaster. After the model is covered with 
clay the plaster of paris is poured over it to make 



Concrete Flower Box Set on Concrete Wall Coping. 


the case, the division of which is governed by 
the size of model and number of pieces. 

After the plaster is set the case is loosened in 
the seams to take off. When the clay layer is 
taken away, the plaster is cleaned out, air vents 
bored in different places as well as a larger open¬ 
ing for pouring the glue through. The inside of 
the case is shellaced, chalked and greased pre- 

















ORNAMENTAL PRODUCTS 


213 


paratory to putting back over the model, when 
the case has to be carefully fastened over the 
model by means of nails, fiber and plaster, as the 
warm and liquid glue otherwise will burst the 
case. The empty space between model and case 
which was occupied bv the layer of clay is then 
filled by liquid glue, through the means of a fun- 



Concrete Flower Pot of Graceful Design. 



214 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


nel placed over the opening in the case made for 
this purpose. 

As soon as glue commences to come through 
the air vents must be stopped with clay to prevent 
the glue from running out of the mold. Glue is 
generally left on the model for about 8 hours, de¬ 
pending on the temperature of the weather, if 
warm weather ice can be placed around to cool 
off quickly. 

When the glue is stiff enough to allow removal, 
the case is taken off and the glue cut according 



Sllttlift 


Beautiful Concrete Urns Made by Pompeian Stone Co. 

to the number of pieces of case. The glue when 
removed is dusted off with talcum and sometimes 
washed with alcohol to rid the mold of grease 
and in order to be able to give it a facing of 
liquid alum, which is put on with a soft brush 
and allowed to dry between each treatment. For 
concrete castings it is necessary to paint the glue 
mold with a thin coat of lead before greasing, to 
prevent the glue from absorbing the water from 








ORNAMENTAL PRODUCTS 


215 



Bench Built of Wood Back and Seat Slats and Reinforced 
Concrete End Sections. 


the liquid concrete. Before concrete is poured 
into the mold to make the cast, the coating of lead 
must be allowed to dry and the mold then greased. 

Glue must generally 
be left to dry for a 
short time and faced 
over and oiled or 
greased between each 
cast as the time re¬ 
quired to set the ce¬ 
ment always softens 
the surface of the 
glue. A glue mold can 
and must be taken off 
sooner than any other 
kind of mold because 
of the elasticity of the 
material. Some good 
strong gelatin must be 
used, which can be 
bought at any glue 

lealers and Can always Concrete Bird Bath of Sim- 
be boiled over several pie Design and Popular. 


















216 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 



times for new molds. Care must be taken after 
each glue mold is used to cut it up in small pieces 
and keep it in a dry place to prevent it from 
becoming moldy and rotten. 

There is no limit for making molds, either in 
plaster or glue, and this expense in making them 
after patterns are made is very small. It should 
he an inducement to concrete workers to enter 
strongly in competition for all kinds of architec¬ 
tural decorations. 

Ornamental c o n- 
crete products will 
compete favorably 
with any kind of 
metal, stone or terra 
cotta ornaments. The 
concrete products 
manufacturer should 
realize the necessity 
of using care in mak¬ 
ing ornamental units 
and that time, thought 
and good workman¬ 
ship spent in making 
artistic concrete prod¬ 
ucts will he well in¬ 
vested. Experiments 
in making glue molds 
and in casting orna¬ 
mental concrete in 
glue molds should be 
made on a small scale 
until proficiency is 
gained. This will save 
money which might 
be wasted by poor 
work due to inexpe¬ 
rience. In fine con¬ 
crete work it pays to 


Concrete Standard for Crys¬ 
tal Gazing Globe for 
Lawn or Garden. 








ORNAMENTAL PRODUCTS 


217 


make speed slowly and be sure of producing 
high grade beautiful concrete products. Nothing 
can be gained by rushing, by using im¬ 
proper materials or by insufficient curing. The 
finer the concrete products the greater is the 
necessity of preserving the outline of the units 
intact as designed and as the product should come 
from the mold. Ornamental concrete products, 



Ornamental Concrete Products Enhance the Beauty of 
This Concrete Swimming Pool. 


including artistic garden furniture, will find a 
ready market if the products show artistic work¬ 
manship. The crystal gazing globe mounted on 
a concrete standard will add to the attractiveness 
of a lawn or flower garden. A sun dial on a 
concrete pedestal is afforded a suitable setting on 
a large city lot or a country estate. 















CHAPTER XXIII. 


WORKING DETAILS OF FORM CON¬ 
STRUCTION FOR CONCRETE BUB¬ 
BLING DRINKING FOUNTAIN. 

There is a good market that cement products 
plants might profitably cultivate in supplying the 

demand for small 
public drinking foun¬ 
tains which may be 
set up in parks, public 
squares or other con¬ 
venient locations along 
our city streets. The 
accompanying sketch¬ 
es detail the dimen¬ 
sions and construction 
of such a drinking 
fountain, which is also 
pictured in photo¬ 
graphic illustrations, 
thus convincing one 
of the reality of the 
structure. 

The fountain is 
composed of a base 
block, shaft, four 
drinking basins and a 
flower urn on the top 
Concrete Drinking Fountain. 0 f the fountain shaft 

proper. The base 
block and shaft are made hollow to decrease the 
weight of the fountain and also to provide space 
to install water supply and waste pipe lines. 

For convenience, this fountain has been de¬ 
signed so that it can be cast in several units. The 
first step is to cast the piece (a). The forms for 








DRINKING FOUNTAIN 219 

this piece consist of four pieces of plank (b) 
with pieces (c) and (d) nailed to (b), as shown. 
The core consists of four pieces (e). These are 
set up in the same manner as forms for any 
square concrete products. The base being a 
monolith and not subject to any strains other 
than compression, requires no reinforcement. 



The shaft (f) with the four drinking basins is 
cast in one piece as shown in two of the accom¬ 
panying sketches. The exterior form for the 
shaft consists of four pieces of plank (g) ex¬ 
tending from the base to the top of the shaft. 
The opening for each basin is to be cut out of 
the side (g) as shown in another illustration. 
The four sides (g) are clamped together and the 
core set in its proper position. The form for the 




















































220 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


basin is composed of the pieces (h). Pieces (i), 
(j) and (k) and the pieces (h), (k) and (j) 
are cut to the form of the outside of basin. These 
parts are nailed together and the entire form is 
supported by the posts (1) and the cleats (m) 
and (n) as shown. 



f/oor to present 
spreading of forms *• 


































































































DRINKING FOUNTAIN 


221 


Barf Clewjtian of Pedestal form with 
form for Bowl removed 



Details of Shaft and Basins of Concrete Drinking 

Fountain. 


The posts (1) should be held by wedges so 
that there will be no movement to the basin form 
while concrete is being placed. 

After the various parts of the basin have 
been nailed together, the assembled form should 
be cut longitudinally, directly through the center 
of the basin. These two parts are then finally 
held together by means of the dogs (p). 











































































































































222 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

The water supply and waste pipes should be 
set in place in the form and concrete placed up 


Section of B-B / \ 

/ \ 

/ \ 

/ \ 




Detail of Drinking Fountain Urn. 








































































































DRINKING FOUNTAIN 


223 


to the bottom of the basin. The core (q) for 
the basin is then set in place and held in position 
by means of the cleats (r). Concrete may now 



Top view of Urn with Core removed 

Details of Urn Core Used in Constructing Concrete Drink¬ 
ing Fountain. 




Detail of Drinking Fountain Urn. 













































































224 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


be placed in the form to the top of the basin and 
when it has reached this point, a strip of wood 
should be nailed in place as shown, to prevent 
the concrete from being forced up at this point 
Concrete in the shaft may now be carried to the 
extreme top. After 3 or 4 hours the strip of 
wood (s) may be removed and the edges of the 



Section at L~ L 



Section at M-M 


Detail of Drinking Fountain Urn. 
































DRINKING FOUNTAIN 225 

basin rounded off to the desired curve with a 
rounding tool. 

The forms for the flower vase consist of 



Section at N'N 



Plan of Bowl 


Alternative Method 
Cast Bowls separately and 
p/ace units m form when cast¬ 
ing pedestal 

Details of Bowls for Concrete Drinking Fountain. 


pieces (t), (u), (v) and (w) nailed together as 
shown. The piece (w) is turned on a lathe to 
make it the desired shape for the outside of the 
vase. The form is filled with concrete to the 




































226 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


bottom of the bowl and then a core consisting of 
the pieces (x), (y) and (z) held together by 
means of cleats as shown is placed in position. 
Concrete is then deposited in the form to the top 
of the vase. After it has been allowed to harden 
for 3 or 4 hours, the cleat for the core may be 
removed and the outer edges of the bowl may be 
rounded off with a rounding tool. Horizontal 
sections through the form for the vase at (g). 
(h), (k), (1) and (m) show the contour of the 
vase at these planes. 

The four drinking basins may be precast in 
separate forms and placed in the sides before 
concrete is placed in the form. The basins must, 
however, if this form of construction is used, be 
rigidly supported so that they will retain their 
exact position while concrete is being deposited. 
There is little choice as to which method is easier 


CHAPTER XXIV. 


FORMS AND MOLDS FOR SPECIAL 

PRODUCTS. 

Careful planning of forms pays in almost every 
class of concrete work, if for no other reason 
than economy of lumber and pleasing sur- 



£ Machine bolt. 


Sectional Plan of Form for Fluted Concrete Column. 


face. However, some classes of concrete work 
require careful planning of forms for other rea¬ 
sons. Concrete objects having unusual shapes 
require that arrangements be made to build forms 
in sufficient sections or to so divide them as to 
make removal from the object easy. 

Above is shown a section of forms for a column 
























228 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


having 24 flutes. In this case it is necessary that 
the forms be divided into six sections so each mav 
be withdrawn in the direction of the arrowhead, 
without binding. The dotted lines parallel to the 
direction of the arrowhead show that the form will 
clear all flutings without injuring the edges. In 



Column with Projecting Surfaces—Correct and Incorrect 

Methods Indicated. 


this particular case, the flutings are shallow. If 
they were deeper, these sections could not be 
withdrawn without injuring the edges. In such 
a case the form would have to be divided into 
more than six sections as here shown. 

It is always necessary first to lay out the col¬ 
umn in plan to determine the number of sec- 




















































SPECIAL FORMS 


229 


tions required. The form which is described is 
supposed to be of cast-iron, but of course for 
making the cast-iron form, a wood pattern is 
required, so carpenter work enters into this form 
construction first, if not last. The sections are 
bolted together. It is possible to use wood forms 
for casting such a fluted surface, but it is sup¬ 
posed that a surface of this kind may have to be 
repeated indefinitely as, perhaps, in casting some 
standardized commercial column, then the wood 
forms would not be economical, because of their 



Method of Making 3-Piece Mold for Plain Circular 

Columns. 


tendency to swell when wet and because, being 
of wood, they would not serve such repeated use 
as metal forms. 

On page 228 is shown a section of form for a 
concrete product having projecting surfaces such 
as pilasters or lugs. 1 he form is shown partly 
filled with concrete to illustrate the object K, 
which for purpose of illustration may be consid- 



230 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

ered the section of a column. There is a correct 
and an incorrect way of making forms for such 
objects. Segment (e) has joints at the middle 
points of projections L. When withdrawn in 
the direction of the arrowhead, the form will 
clear the concrete, as is indicated by the parallel 
dotted lines (f-f). This is the correct method if 
the form is divided into four segments similar 



Showing Incorrect Parting of 2-Piece Circular Mold. 


to (e). If the form is divided into four segments 
similar to A, having joints midway between two 
projections, the segments cannot be withdrawn 
in the direction of the arrowhead, nor in any 
other direction, without breaking the edges of 
the projection as shown by the parallel lines 
(b-b). If the edges of the projection on the 
product are parallel with the line drawn through 
the center of the product as shown at (c), then 
joints midway between the projections would be 





SPECIAL FORMS 


231 


permissible, and the form could be divided into 
four segments similar to (c). These segments 
could be withdrawn in the direction of the arrow¬ 
head, as indicated by the dotted lines (d). If 
the form were divided into eight parts, then each 
part would be similar to segment (g) which 
could be withdrawn in the direction of the arrow¬ 
head without injuring the edges of projections 
as shown by line (h) parallel to the face of this 
projection. 

These examples illustrate underlying principles 



of correct and incorrect methods of dividing 
forms for practically all circular concrete ob¬ 
jects. Others require only special planning, that 
the differences of shape and surface involve, 
which means only a slight variation of the prin¬ 
ciples illustrated. 

For circular objects having no irregularities on 
their surface, in other words, having a plain 
surface, it is best to divide the form into three 
sections or segments as shown in another sketch. 
It is of course possible to divide the form in two 
segments and have it work. However, any slight 










232 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


variation from cutting it at the exact diameter of 
the circle, as well as any unusual swelling that 
may take place due to moisture from the con¬ 
crete, is certain to make the form bind and will 
probably result in injuring either the form or the 
concrete surface. 


Forms or Molds Particularly for Orna¬ 
mental Products. 

In the manufacture of concrete products 
such as brick, block, tile and other units gen¬ 
erally formed by machine, the molds or forms 
necessary to produce them are a part of the 
mechanical equipment by means of which they 
are made. 

For making those concrete products which 
are partly or wholly ornamental, special forms 
must be provided. Such forms may be of wood, 
metal, glue, plaster, sand or concrete. The most 
elaborate forms have something in common with 
even the simplest ones. For example, all forms 
must be planned so that it will be easy to remove 
the finished product from the mold without in 
any way marring the surface. 

Attention should be drawn here to the dis¬ 
tinction between the bottom of the object and 
the bottom of the form. That part of the form 
which rests upon the work-bench or upon the 
pallet upon which the work is being done is re¬ 
ferred to as the “bottom of the form,” while the 
bottom of the concrete object being described is 
always referred to as the “bottom,” regardless 
of the position of the object when cast. 

With proper care well-made forms for cast¬ 
ing ornamental products will have a practically 
indefinite life; that is, they may be used so many 
times that their cost distributed on the basis of 
number of times used makes form cost for any 



SPECIAL FORMS 


233 


single product manufactured almost insignificant. 

Wood forms must be made of good mate¬ 
rial. Kiln dried white pine is one of the best 
materials when ornamental products are to be 
cast in wood form, because being a soft wood, it 
permits considerable working that is more diffi¬ 
cult with harder woods. If white pine is not 
used then, perhaps, birch is next best. It also 
should be kiln dried. 

After all carpenter work, carving and meth¬ 
ods of assembling the form have been perma¬ 
nently executed, all parts of wood forms should 
be thoroughly impregnated with a mixture of 
linseed oil and kerosene, so that they will be 
absolutely waterproof. Waterproofness is neces¬ 
sary to prevent the wood from absorbing mois¬ 
ture from the concrete, and in that way causing 
alteration in shape of forms, making them bulge 
out of line and therefore difficult to assemble or 
dismantle. After thoroughly oil-soaked and 
wiped free from surplus oil and allowed to stand 
for several days, the forms may be given a coat 
of shellac. Each time before used they should 
be lightly wiped with an oily rag, and thoroughly 
cleaned of any adhering concrete immediately 
after each use. 

Cast-iron or steel forms or molds require 
some finishing after coming from the foundry 
flask. Perhaps certain surfaces will need a little 
machining. 

Wherever possible clamps, screws or other 
simple devices should be used for holding forms 
assembled while concrete is being placed in them 
and until the product has hardened sufficiently to 
permit form removal. 

Sometimes forms are made of sheet metal. 
These, however, require the ability of a skillful 
sheet-metal worker, preceded by a working draw¬ 
ing, that is not within the range and capability 


234 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


of the average person unless at some time he has 
mastered the drawing of pattern-making. 

Plaster and glue molds are simple to make 
and also require models or the skill of clay 
modeling to build up the pattern. 

Sand molds are used principally in the cast¬ 
ing of trimstone. Methods of making sand 
molds have been sometimes covered by patents, 
some of which, however, have expired and are 
therefore common property. It would be well, 
however, for the person intending to investigate 
the possibilities of casting products in sand molds 
to acquaint himself with patents covering pres¬ 
ent-day processes of making and using sand 
molds in order that no risks of infringement and 
consequent suits for damages may be unknow¬ 
ingly incurred. 




CHAPTER XXV. 


SURFACE FINISH OF CONCRETE 
PRODUCTS. 

One of the many advantages which concrete 
products possess is that they can more easily be 
given a greater variety of surface finish than can 



Panel of Beautifully Finished Concrete Building Units. 


be secured with any other manner of using con¬ 
crete. Some of these finishes are given entirely 
after the work has been completed, others are 
partly or wholly arranged for when the materials 






















236 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


are being selected or when being placed in the 
molds. For this reason individual pieces of 
finished concrete work or structures made of 
assembled units, such as concrete block with or 



- - 


Beautifully Finished Concrete Steps and Wall at Moose- 

heart, III. 


without special trimstone, can possess an un¬ 
excelled attractiveness. 

In small ornamental objects and in such 
small products as brick and block, colored sands 
and selected aggregates such as marble chips, 
granite screenings, crushed slag, singly or in 
combination, are used in place of the common 
aggregates employed in the bulk of the concrete 







SURFACE FINISH 


237 


product. In other words, a special facing mix¬ 
ture is made up by using the selected sands and 
coarse aggregates, which in turn is susceptible to 
still further variation if white portland cement 
is used in place of the ordinary gray portland 
cement, or if various coloring pigments are added 
to the concrete regardless of whether white or 
gray cement is used as the binder. After the 
products have been removed from the mold, the 



Close Up View of Stucco Surface of Potomac Park Field 
House. Concrete Block Will Take Stucco Readily. 


surface is treated in some one of a number of 
different ways to take advantage of color effects 
that can be secured after the methods mentioned. 

The simplest surface finish that any concrete 
product can have is that obtained by properly 
placing the material in well-made forms or molds 







238 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


so that the coarser particles will not lie exposed 
on the surface of the product. 

No better ground exists for the application 
of stucco than rough cast concrete block. In 
such a case no care is taken to produce an even 
texture of surface, it being preferable that there 
be small aggregate pockets on the surface of the 
block in order that the stucco may more firmly 
bond to it. 

The surface of concrete, whether block or 



Concrete Surface Finish at Fort Lincoln Cemetery. 


monolithic, if left as it comes from the forms or 
molds, is monotonous. The only color it has is 
due almost entirely to the cement. Regardless of 
the aggregates that may have been used, their 
color does not appear because coated with a film 
of cement. So the simplest treatment that can 
be given to* a concrete product to obtain some 
special surface effect is to remove the film of 




SURFACE FINISH 239 

cement coating the aggregates. However, com¬ 
mon aggregates do not lend attractiveness to the 
block or other product if exposed in this manner. 



Concrete Gate Posts at U. S. Naval Hospital Reservation, 

Washington, D. C. 

For that reason where special surface effects are 
to be obtained, the aggregates are selected with 
that end in view as already mentioned. 

Sand used as fine aggregate does not par- 









240 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


ticularly affect the color of the concrete surface. 
Usually in preparing for selected aggregate sur¬ 
face finish, the body of the block is composed of 
the usual i: 2V2 :4 concrete mixture, and the 
mold filled to within 1 or x / 2 in. of the top struck 
off at this level, and the remaining space filled 
with a 1 :iy 2 or 1:2 mixture containing the se¬ 
lected materials. This mixture may be of white 
cement and the selected aggregates, or of gray 
or colored cement with selected aggregates, thus 
obtaining many pleasing and artistic effects. 

White sand and white cement can be used in 
facing block brick and tile and produces a very 
pleasing effect. High grade clean while silica 
sand is obtainable from a number of producers. 
The proportion of cement to use with any of the 
sands can be best determined by experiment until 
the desired facing is obtained. The proportions 
being once determined it is a simple matter to 
obtain in all of the products or in all of one 
product a standard finish. Where natural colored 
sands are available it should be determined oy 
analysis if the colors are fast, that is non running 
and non fading. 

With selected aggregates, the surface finish 
is obtained by washing off the film of cement 
that coats the particles, thus revealing their color. 
If the product can be handled within a few hours 
after taken from the mold, this surface film can 
easily be removed by scrubbing with fibre bristle 
brush and water only. If, however, the product 
has hardened so that the cement film cannot be 
removed in this way, an acid wash is necessary. 
In any event, care must be taken that the brush¬ 
ing is not started too soon on the green product, 
for in such case small particles of aggregate will 
be loosened from the surface, pitting it and thus 
making it unsightly. Nozzles delivering a fine 
spray under perfect control are used in many 


SURFACE FINISH 


241 


plants to wash away the film of neat cement from 
the face of products. These nozzles are easy to 
operate and are very effective. 

1 he longer the surface remains before being 
brushed, the more difficult it will be to remove 
the film of cement. Then an acid solution must 
be used. In such case a wire bristle brush, or a 
brush made by clamping together a sufficient 



Power Operated Machine Used in Tooling Concrete 

Products. 


number of sheets of wire cloth, can be used in¬ 
stead of a fibre scrubbing brush. The brush 
should be dipped in a solution consisting of i 
part of hydrochloric (common muriatic) acid to 
3 or 4 parts of water, and light scrubbing kept 
up until the surface film of cement is loosened 
from the aggregate. When this has been done 
the surface must immediately and thoroughly be 
drenched with clean water, preferably applied 
freely from a hose so as to check the action of 
the acid, otherwise aggregate particles will be 
loosened from the surface. Thorough washing 














242 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


is also necessary after scrubbing with the acid 
solution to prevent a mottled, streaky appearance. 

Variations in color and texture of the sur¬ 
face which are to be obtained by washing or 
otherwise exposing the aggregate, can be made 
almost without number by combining two or 
more selected aggregates. For example, a mix¬ 
ture of yellow and of white marble chips, or of 
gray granite screenings and black crushed slag, 
with a little mica spar or mica are suggestions; 
or white portland cement with mica spar and 
marble chips, or white portland cement with yel¬ 
low coloring and yellow marble chips mixed with 
a little crushed slag, are other variations. Such 
mixtures produce a beautiful surface texture 
when the film of cement is removed by scrub¬ 
bing, either with water or the acid solution, de¬ 
pending upon the age of the concrete. 

Another method of finishing the concrete sur¬ 
face is to tool it in any one of the several 
ways common in ordinary tooling or cutting of 
natural stone. But in preparing for such sur¬ 
face treatment, it is necessary to pay particular 
attention to selection of aggregates in order that 
they may be of uniform hardness, and still fur¬ 
ther attention to proportioning of concrete mix¬ 
tures, so it will be certain there is sufficient ce¬ 
ment to thoroughly bond particles together, and 
at the same time no more cement than necessary 
for this purpose, otherwise the full possible color 
and texture effect cannot be obtained. However 
mixtures must not be lean in cement, otherwise 
there will not be enough to prevent small parti¬ 
cles of aggregate from being dislodged or broken 
out when tooling the surface. 

For concrete that is to he tooled like stone, 
it is necessary that the product be thoroughly 
hardened. It must be almost flint-like so that 
aggregate particles will not be broken out of the 


SURFACE FINISH 


243 


surface. It is the particles themselves that must 
be tooled to give the desired effect. Thorough 
steam hardening of the product therefore is 
preferable. Although the surface may be tooled 
by using chisels, just as marble and other stones 
are carved or cut, the usual tooling consists'of 
hammering with a bush or pean hammer such as 
is used by stone dressers. Under this tool the 
aggregates are slightly cut, thus disclosing their 



Concrete Block Surface Tooled to Show Natural 

Aggregate. 


,color and giving to the concrete surface an ap¬ 
pearance like that of cut stone. 

Polishing Concrete. 

Concrete surfaces may be given a polish sim¬ 
ilar to that obtained on granites . and marbles. 
Electric rubbing wheels are often used for such 
purpose. The degree of polish that may be se¬ 
cured depends upon the aggregate used, and the 
thorough grading of it, so that the least possible 
amount of cement necessary to bond the particles 
















































244 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


will be required. Examples of such finish may 
be seen in the so-called mosaic or terrazzo floors. 
Such a surface to receive the best polish must 
expose as great an area of aggregate as possible. 



Power Operated Table Used in Giving a Rubbed Finish 

to Concrete Products. 


the nearest approach to 85% of aggregate sur¬ 
face on the face of the product. 

Every concrete products plant aiming to 







SURFACE FINISH 


245 


turn out a product resembling cut stone should 
have on its staff a stone cutter who will thor¬ 
oughly appreciate the details of workmanship 
necessary to a high-grade product treated in this 
manner. 

Coloring Concrete. 

Another variation possible in the surface of 
concrete products is secured by adding coloring 
matter to the facing mixture. This practice also, 
as has been mentioned, can be combined with 
that of selecting the aggregates. If a uniform 
reddish tone is desired, then coloring matter such 
as red oxide of iron may be added to the cement 
and pink or red granite chips used as aggregate. 
The face of the product to be exposed is then 
treated by washing and scrubbing with water or 
acid solution, or by grinding the surface with a 
carborundum stone. 

It requires considerable skill to mix cement 
and colored pigments to secure a uniformity of 
tone and at the same time retain the full strength 
which the concrete should have. The impor¬ 
tance of mixing the pigment thoroughly with the 
cement before adding the aggregates should be 
thoroughly appreciated. As a very simple meth¬ 
od of testing the thorough incorporation of color¬ 
ing matter with cement, a handful of the dry 
mixture may be pressed under a sheet of stiff 
paper. The even surface produced under such 
pressure will disclose streaks if cement and 
coloring matter have not been thoroughly com¬ 
bined. 

Still another way of varying the color of 
concrete surfaces is by immersing the finished 
object in some solution that will dye or stain it. 
This, of course, is particularly applicable to such 
ornamental wares as vases, urns and other pieces 
of garden furniture or still smaller wares. 


246 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

The absorptive qualities of well-made con¬ 
crete are distinctly limited. However, they are 
sufficient to permit coloring by capillary action. 
By this method the coloring is deposited in the 
pores of the surface, resulting in permanent 
tints or tones. The possibilities of this method 
of treatment have not been fully developed and 
would seem to have almost unlimited possibility. 
They are based on a knowledge of coloring 
values and good judgment. 

Coloring solutions can be made to penetrate 
the surface of concrete 6 ins. or more if the 
object is immersed while in a very green state. 
However, it is seldom necessary to secure a 
penetration exceeding y% in. This thoroughly 
fills all surface pores and gives the tone effect 
desired. It is also desirable not to color by im¬ 
mersion until the concrete has sufficiently hard¬ 
ened to prevent reduction of its 'Structural 
strength by treatment. 

To produce a reddish brown color, it is sug¬ 
gested that 1 lb. of sulphate of iron to 2 gals; of 
water be used. This requires immersion for sev¬ 
eral minutes or longer. If 2 lbs. of sulphate of 
iron is added to 1 gal. of water and an immersion 
of only a few seconds is maintained, a light cream 
color would be obtained. 

Cream color would be obtained by immersing 
the product in a solution composed of 1 lb. of 
sulphate of copper to 3 gals, of water. It may be 
necessary to immerse the product in this solution 
for a number of hours, to obtain the depth of 
shade desired. These solutions should make the 
surface of the concrete products hard and dense 
and also waterproof. Exposure to the atmosphere 
of products colored in this manner, will result in 
oxidation. 

Coloring by absorption is effective on sur¬ 
faces after being treated with acid or tools. Sur- 


SURFACE FINISH 


247 


faces that have been colored by absorbing min¬ 
eral or metallic colors are less absorbent and the 
action of the weather on metallic colors such as 
the sulphates of copper and iron is the same as 
on real metals, increasing the beauty of the color¬ 
ing by the usual oxidization, such as observed on 
bronze and copper. Concrete surfaces treated 
by such methods become so hard and dense that 
they will take uniformly dull or high-gloss polish. 
Flower pots, vases, flower boxes and similar 
wares finished by this method are very attractive 
and the artistic possibilities of the treatment are 
limited only by the colored sands employed and 
artistic taste displayed by the worker. In addi¬ 
tion to the sulphates of copper and iron, aniline 
colors are used. 

Crushed Colored Glass. 

Crushed glass has been used effectively in fin¬ 
ishing concrete products. There may now be 
obtained glass crushed by a process which results 
in beautiful crystals without sharp cutting edges. 
This is a feature which make this product desir¬ 
able in that it eliminates chances of injury to 
workmen’s hands. Colored glass is produced in 
a variety of colors and may be mixed in any de¬ 
sired proportions to produce a variegated effect. 
This aggregate is produced in Chicago. 

Slag By-Product Aggregate. 

A beautiful black aggregate having the appear¬ 
ance of black glass is obtained in the treatment of 
a particular slag for which no market was found 
until the process of treating the slag was intro¬ 
duced in America. Next to carborumdum this 
product comes near to perfection in satisfying a 
demand for a clear, bright, black aggregate suit¬ 
able for use alone or in combination with other 
aggregates to produce any special effect that may 
be desired. 


248 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

Colored Aggregates for Concrete or Stucco 
Surfaces—Marbles. 

3 



si 


c 

c 

o 

<u 

oj 

<u 

u 

s 


Pi 

o 


:k 

* * 




Names and Address. 

Beaver Dam Marble Co., Balti¬ 
more ... . 

Cardiff Green Marble Co., Car¬ 
diff, Md. * 

Conlin & Co., Tuckahoe, N. Y. 

Detroit Marble Co., Detroit, Mich. 

Georgia Mineral Products Co., 

Tate, Ga. * 

Italian Marble Mosaic Co., Phila¬ 
delphia . . . .V. 

Juventy & Cornells, New York.. 

Kapailo Mfg. Co., New York. 

Middlebury Marble Co., Brandon, 

Vt. * 

N. O. Nelson Marble Works, Ed- 

wardsville, Ill. * 

Northwestern Marble & Tile Co., 

Minneapolis . * * * * * 

Ohio Marble Co., Piqua, O. 

R. V. Reynolds Co., Chicago. * * * * * 

Robt. Rossman Co., Chicago. * . . . 

Rock Products Co., Easton, Pa. * . . 

Roserock Quarries, Crown Point, 

N. Y. *. 

H. A. Schweyer Co., Easton, Pa. * . . 

Sunderland Bros., Omaha, Neb.. * .. .. * * 

Sylvan Green Marble Co., Phila¬ 
delphia . * 

Tompkins-Kiel Marble Co., Chi¬ 
cago . * * 

Traitel Marble Co., New York. 

Western Brick & Supply Co., Lin¬ 
coln, Neb. * 

Westfield Marble & Sandstone Co., 

Westfield, Mass. * 

Whitestone Marble Co., Atlanta, 

Ga. * 

Willingham Stone Co., Atlanta. 

Zube Marble & Granite Works, 

Houston, Tex. 


Black 

Grav 

































COLORED AGGREGATES 249 

Colored Aggregates for Concrete or Stucco 
Surfaces—Granites. 


Names and Address. 

Crown Point Spar Co., New York 
Karris Granite Quarries, Salis¬ 
bury, N. C. 

Hilder Granite Co., St. Cloud, 
Minn. 


A A 


*0 <y 
<v u- 

04 o 


£ 

£ 3 


4 


* -It 


Hunkins-Willis Lime & Cement 
Co., St. Louis, Mo. * .. 

C D. Jackson & Co., New York. . * .. 

V. H. Kriegshaber & Son, Atlan¬ 
ta, Ga. 

Marathon Granite Co., Wausau. 

Wis.. .. 

McClenahan Granite Co., Port 
Deposit, Md. 

Metro-Nite Co., Milwaukee, Wis. * . . 

Monarch Mining Co., Jersey City. 

N. J. 

Northern Granite & Stone Co., 
Cleveland . * 


Parker Quarries Co., Macon, Ga. 

Picton Island Red Granite Co.. 
New York . 


* 


* 

* 


* 


Rockport Granite Co., Rockport, 

Mass... 

Webb Pink Granite Co., New York *. 

Western Brick & Supply Co., 

Lincoln, Neb. *. 

Wisconsin Granite Co., Chicago. .. *.. * . . .. * .. 

Zerbe Marble & Granite Works, 

Houston, Tex. 

John W. Barwell, Inc., New York—(Pompton pink 
granite, consisting of pink, green, white and black in 
one aggregate.) 

Pompton Pink Granite Co., New York—(Pompton pink 
granite, consisting of pink, green, white and black in 
one aggregate.) 


Gray 





















250 • CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

Colored Aggregates for Concrete or Stucco 
Surfaces—Mica Spar and Quartz. 

Mica Silica 

Names and Address. Spar Quartz Sand 

Ballou White Sand Co., Milling¬ 
ton, Ill. . * 

Crown Point Spar Co., New York. * 

Northern Granite & Stone Co., 

Cleveland. * 

Ottawa Silica Co., Ottawa, Ill. .. * 

Peekskill Quartz Co., Box 133, 

Peekskill, N. Y. .. * 

Roserock Quarry, Crown Point, 

N. Y. * 

H. Steers Sand & Gravel Co., New 

York .. * 

Tamms Silica Co., Chicago. . . * 

Texas Mica Co.. Inc.. Pecos. Tex.. * 

U. S. Mica Mfg. Co., Chicago—Ground mica to be 
mixed with other facing aggregate. 

U. S. Silica Co., Chicago. .. * 

F. R. Upton, Newark, N. J. 

Wausau Quartz Co.. Wausau, Wis. .. * 

Wedron Silica Co., Chicago. . . * 

Crushed Glass and Slag By-Product. 


.3 <V O U ^ 

cl , & o > m 

R. V. Reynolds & Co., Chicago. .. ******* 

Special Hard Aggregates. 

Carbo-rundum Co., Buffalo, N. Y.. Carborundum Crystals 
Norton Co., Worcester, Mass. Alundum 

Air Tools Used to Beautify Concrete. 

Many of the coarse aggregates used in concrete 
are capable of treatment which will develop the 
natural beauty of the aggregates. Even structures 
designed primarily for utility can be made pleas¬ 
ing to the eye by proper treatment. In such 
structures as office buildings, industrial buildings 













SURFACE FINISH 


251 


in or near residence districts, retaining walls and 
viaducts the necessity of paying attention to the 
appearance of the structure is becoming recog- 



Concrete Trimstone Was Used on This 20-Story Atlantic 
Building in Philadelphia and Pneumatic Tools Were 
Used on the Building to Finish the Concrete. 


nized. Concrete building units such as block for 
walls may be made of aggregate having natural 
beauty which mav he hidden by a film of cement. 













252 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

Information is generally available on ways and 
means of treating concrete while green with a 
water spray to wash away the film of cement; to 
acid treatment after the concrete is hard and to 
the use of facing aggregates to obtain the desired 
appearance. Pneumatic tools are available for use 
in concrete products plants and on buildings 
where monolithic concrete or concrete products 



Workmen on Swinging Scaffolds Used Air Tools to Good 
Effect on Factory Made Concrete Trimstone. 


have been used. The time is approaching when 
air and air tools will be employed more exten¬ 
sively in concrete products plants for various uses. 

An outstanding example of the “dressing-up” 
of a 20-story skyscraper through use of pneu¬ 
matic bushing tools on the cast stone surfaces is 
found in the new Atlantic building on South 
Broad street, Philadelphia. All four sides of the 
first five floors of this building, erected by the 























SURFACE FINISH 253 

Atlantic Refining Co., are of cast stone, manufac¬ 
tured by the Benedict Stone Corp. of New York. 

The specifications in this instance called for a 
reproduction of the granite surface, and the Ben¬ 
edict Corp. employed the standard Dallet finger- 
grip type of pneumatic bushing tool for the work. 
As chisel equipment, a point chisel was used, con¬ 
sisting of nine points for the surfacing of the 



Example of Tool Finished Concrete as Applied to Walls. 


outer sand face or skin, and a single-blade chisel 
for finishing. 

For the bushing of this job, a compressor with 
ample capacity to operate 15 tools was provided. 
The air supply pipe was carried on the cornice of 
the second floor. This pipe was 2 ins. in diameter 
and had leaders at convenient intervals, so that the 
hose lines could be readily attached. Hose sec¬ 
tions were 50 ft. in length and permitted ample 
freedom of operation of the tools at any point in 
the height of the work. Swinging scafifolds, with 
canvas covering, gave a certain amount of protec¬ 
tion to the workmen and incidentally confined the 
dust. 

Ornamentations on the cornice, as noted on the 
front view photograph of the building, reproduced 









254 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


with this article, were tooled over. Indentations 
and moldings of the carvings were cleaned up so 
as to make them stand out as though they had 
been cut from solid formation. 

The four sides of the five floors of cast stone 
represent 31,800 sq. ft. of surface. The exact 
figures of daily surface bushing are not available, 
but the 15 men employed at the tools averaged 
more than 40 sq. ft. each in 8 hours. 

The job, when completed, was very pleasing to 
look upon and revealed that the desired efitect had 
been carried out with striking results.. To the 
observer, the first five floors of the building ap¬ 
pear to be of granite construction, so closely were 
the specifications followed by the contractors. 
Architects are giving no little attention to the 
possibilities of development of the use of bushed 
surface concrete block in modern building con¬ 
struction of the larger types. 

Developments already tend to indicate many 
other buildings in Philadelphia will be beautified 
along lines similar to the Atlantic building and it 
seems certain that architects will include concrete 
block in their specifications, with an eye to bring¬ 
ing out its natural beauty through the use of 
pneumatic bushing tools. The Atlantic building, 
which stands out majestically on one of the 
busiest thoroughfares of the Quaker City, lights 
a beacon to the development of a new and here¬ 
tofore neglected art in the evolution of the city 
beautiful. 


CHAPTER XXVI. 


CEMENT MORTAR COLORS. 

From a decorative or artistic viewpoint it 
would be difficult to obtain anything less pleasing 
than the flat, unbroken, monotonous appearance o f 
the usual concrete surface. Considerable effort 
has been made to relieve this by various physical 
finishes, such as stipple, dashed, exposed aggre¬ 
gates, etc., but apparently very little effort has 
been made along lines of color. This is rather 
remarkable, as no intrinsic difficulty is involved in 
the use of the color and no very great expense. 

It is absolutely imperative though that the 
colors used should be permanent. They must not 
be affected by the lime always present in the 
cement and mortar and must not be faded by the 
light or any acid effect in the atmosphere. Very 
pleasing colors can be produced, however, which 
possess these characteristics, such as terra cotta, 
moss green, Dutch blue, buff, white, dark gray, 
etc. These colors are produced and used in a dry 
powder form. 

The amount of color used varies, of course, 
with the shade and intensity of tone desired but 
varies usually from 5 to 15% by weight of the 
amount of portland; cement used. 

Where dark shades are desired, the ordinary 
gray portland cement can be used with a good 
grade of sand. Where very light or delicate 
shades are desired, however, resort must be had 
to white portland cement and white sand. 

In regard to the amount of color required to 
obtain a given shade, some experimentation is 
necessary. Trial briquettes, with various amounts 
of color, would .have to be made up with the 
available ingredients, allowed to set and dry out. 
This would be necessary as the wet mortar 



256 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


would not, of course, show the final shade, but 
as the rate of drying out would not affect the 
shade, the drying out could be forced by artificial 
means. Once the proportions have been deter- 



I n Stucco Work Only the Best Colors Should Be Used. 
The Color Should Be as Permanent as the Bond. 


mined, no further trouble should be experienced, 
because one of the prime conditions of a good 
concrete or mortar is that the proportions of all 



MORTAR COLORS 


257 

ingredients, even the water content, must be 
kept constant throughout the job. 

Method of Mixing. 

Best results will be obtained by mixing inti¬ 
mately the color pigments and the portland 
cement. This can be best done by using a color 
grinder, consisting substantially of a sheet metal 
drum revolving on an axis, this drum being pro¬ 
vided with an opening into which the color and 
cement in definite proportions is dropped into the 
drum. This opening is closed and the drum re¬ 
volved until the colors have become intimately 
mixed. Frequently flint pebbles, steel rollers and 
steel ball are placed inside the revolving drum 
and assists in quicker and more thorough mixing 
of the cement and pigment. 

The purest pigments necessarily command a 
higher price than pigments which contain a large 
amount of foreign matter. It is the foreign 
matter which in many cases leaches out through 
the action of weather and causes fading of the 
colored surface. The use of high grade colors, 
properly mixed with the cement, will eliminate to 
a large extent, this possibility. 

Colored cement of high quality'can be pur¬ 
chased from manufacturers who have had long 
experience in producing colored cement. Such a 
manufacturer is located in the Chicago, Ill., dis¬ 
trict and is operating a factory in which the ut¬ 
most care is exercised to the end that any shade 
of colored cement ever produced by the company 
can be'duplicated. Some products manufacturers 
have experienced difficulty in obtaining uniform 
shades at different times and have not given the 
necessary thought and time to checking the raw 
materials to proportioning and mixing them. The 
plant to which reference is made keeps an accurate 
record of all formulas used to produce various 



258 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

shades of colors. Specializing in the production 
of colored cement the manufacturer develops 
skill that is not practicable where only small 
amounts of colored cements are made at varying 
intervals of time. Where a products manufac¬ 
turer has difficulty in making products of the 
colors desired he should check his methods and 
would do well to try colored cement made by a 
specialist. 

Those persons mixing their own colors and 
cement will probably find that they will save 
money by mixing pigments with white cement, the 
white cement being neutral. This reference is 
especially made in relation to pigments other than 
black or gray. 

Each plant operator who mixes his own cement 
and pigment should keep a record of the colors 
used, proportions of color to cement, the method 
and time of mixing and the shade obtained. It 
may even be necessary to keep specimen pats of 

COLORING MATERIALS. 


Dry Material 
Used. 

Weight of Dry Coloring Matter to 100 lbs. 

Cement. 


Y 2 lb- 

1 lb. 

2 lbs. 

Lamp Black 

Light Slate 

Light Gray 

Blue Gray 

Prussian 

Blue 

Light Green 
Slate 

Light Blue 

Slate 

Blue Slate 

Ultra Marine 
Blue 

Yellow Ochre 

Light Green 

Light Pinkish 
Slate 

Light Blue 

Slate 

Blue Slate 

Burnt Umber 

Pinkish Slate 

Dull Lavender 
Pink 

Venetian Red 

Slate Pink 
Tinge 

Bright Pink¬ 
ish Slate 

Light Dull 
Pink. 

Chattanooga 
Iron Ore 

Light Pinkish 
Slate 

Dull Pink 

Light Terra 

Cctta 

Red Iron Ore 

Pinkish Slate 

Dull Pink 

Terra Cotta 


















MIXTURES FOR BODY OF BLOCK. 


CEMENT MORTAR COLORS 


lantities of materials necessary 
for 100 8x8x16 in. standard con¬ 
crete block, allowing 33% for 
air chambers. 

Cu. yds. 
Stone. 

1.30 

1.20 

1.35 


ials neces- 

; in. stand- 

u ft. of 

Sand. 

3.20 

3.45 

Cu. yds. 
Sand. 

CClffl Go C£> 

• • *1 

cioo 

C X 

O 


• • • . 

i 

Quantities of r 

sary for 100 8 

ard blocks. 



Bbls. of 
Cement. 

O ^ rH 

CM O OO CO 

CM CM t—' CO 


Bbls. 

Cemei 

COCO 

uo -r 

<y 






w 

13'd 
’C 
<0 . 

Cu. yds. 
Stone. 

<35C<IC<J • 

00 00 05 • 

d 

2 
i—i 

o 

< 

materials 
cu. yd. 
te. 

Cu. ft. of 
Sand. 

23.2 

25.1 

r< <D 

Cu. yds. 
Sand. 



tH 

^ o 


Quantities of 
necessary for 
of concr 

^ 1 C ^ o 
• • • • 
rH 

& 

o 

Quantities o 
necessary fc 
of con 


3.86 

3.1 

Bbls. of 
Cement. 

rH <35 rf m 

m co co ^ 
HHH W " 

GO 

w 

£ 

H 

X 

Bbls. 

Cemei 







l and 
of 

Cu. ft. 
Stone. 

. 

rH rH CM • 

hH 

£ 

£ 

JO 

u 

CD 

no 

I ft. of 
Sand. 

ccoo 

Crt . 




'O § 

o ^ 

o 


Cu. ft. of f 
stone per 
cemer 

3 § 

0C)O O CM 

rH rH rH 


otJ 


Bbls. of 
Cement. 

HhHH 


Cu. ft. 

0 

C 

• 0) 
w C 

£ § 
MO 

rH rH 







Proportions 
for body 
of block. 


■'f ■fio 

CM CM CM CO 

H H H H 


Proportions 
for facing. 


*1:1% 

*1:2 


259 


Based on facing used in surface layer %-in. thick. 























































260 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


the colored cement so that the same shade can be 
duplicated by experiment at any later date. It is 
natural to assume that more standard results will 
be obtained by mixing colors with white cement, 
as there is considerable range of shade in the dif¬ 
ferent brands of gray cement. Whether white 
cement or gray cement is used a complete record 
should be kept for the information of the plant 
operator. 

As to the consistency of the mix, the amount 
of water used would not affect the final shade, 
as all water not used in hydration of the cement 
would eventually evaporate. 

Uses of Mortar Colors. 

Color has been used quite considerably in mor¬ 
tar used for laying brick with good and perma¬ 
nent effect. It has also been used in interior 
cement mortar work such as floors. A recent 
notable example of the latter use is in the new 
Pennsylvania hotel, New York. When used in 
a floor, however, where it is desired to use also 
a surface liquid hardener, one feature has to be 
considered. The hardeners' have no chemical 
discoloring effect on the color, but those of the 
magnesium fluosilicate type leave a white efflor¬ 
escence on the surface. This, however, is not 
permanent and can be scrubbed off. Hardeners 
of the resinate type, while more expensive, do 
not produce this effect and, on the contrary, im¬ 
prove the appearance of the floor and give a 
harder and more permanent surface. In finish¬ 
ing a surface, such as a floor, too much trowel¬ 
ing should be avoided as it floats the cement, 
which has usually a lower specific gravity 
than the color, to the surface and changes the 
shade. This precaution should maintain, how¬ 
ever, for a good wearing surface regardless of 
the color. 

With regard to the use of color in exterior 


MORTAR COLORS 261 

stucco work the report before referred to of the 
American Concrete Institute says: 

The chief objection to the dash finishes above de¬ 
scribed is their rather cold, unbroken cement color, 
which may be relieved and improved to a considerable 
extent by the judicious use of mineral pigment. 

Good effects could also be obtained in the 
pebble dash and exposed aggregate finishes 
where the contract between the mortar and the 
pebble or coarse aggregate could be accentuated. 
In the later case, where it was necessary to use 
hydrochloric acid to clean out the mortar, no 
deleterious effect would result to colors of good 
grade. 

In concrete buildings it would also appear that 
some very artistic results might be obtained by 
the use of color, at least in window or door sills 
and lintels, cornice, balustrades, roofing tile and 
other ornamental features. 

In experimental work done to try out pigments 
with a view to determining the amount of color 
to use, to see what shades are obtainable and to 
ascertain the fastness of the colors it will be well 
to keep accurate records of the various mixtures. 
The name of color manufacturer, grade of color, 
shade, degree of fineness, amount of color re¬ 
quired to produce a desired shade in a bag of ce¬ 
ment, price per pound of color, cost per sack or 
per 100 lbs. of the colored cement and all other 
related data should be carefully recorded for 
future reference. Experiments should not be 
made in a haphazard way nor should the experi¬ 
menter depend on memory for a record of 
processes and results. 


CHAPTER XXVII. 


CONCRETE LAUNDRY TRAYS. 

Evolution of the manufacture of concrete 
laundry tubs is an interesting subject, showing 
the progress made in substituting concrete for 
various other and more expensive materials. 

Laundry tubs have been manufactured for the 
past 40 years. Up to the last few years, these 
tubs were made of slate, sandstone, marble, and 
similar materials. This method was very costly 
and bulky, as it was necessary to quarry the stone, 
ship it to the local market, cut it into slabs, saw 
and finish it and then assemble. 

With the coming of concrete, manufacturers 
conceived the idea of producing concrete laundry 
tubs. In the beginning, concrete*was poured and 
tamped into sectional molds, but after the molds 
were taken off, the finish was unsatisfactory, leav¬ 
ing uneven surfaces and ridges. 

To overcome this, it was necessary to apply a 
coat of cement grout on the tub, which was con¬ 
trary to good practice. The result of applying 
this slush coat of cement grout on dry concrete, 
was that the tub would quickly absorb the mois¬ 
ture from the coat, which would craze, crack and 
chip, giving the appearance of a cracked tub. 

After considerable experimenting, satisfactory 
molds were developed which would leave a 
smoothly finished tub. In order to get this re¬ 
sult, it was necessary to draw the core from the 
concrete in one piece. 

Almost invariably drawing this core would ruin 
the finish of the tub, as the vacuum created in 
drawing the core would crack the sides (the walls 
being only 1 % in. thick), thereby resulting in a 
total loss. 

Difficulties of drawing these cores without 



LAUNDRY TUBS 263 

spoiling the finish or cracking the tub have been 
overcome by developing molds having the proper 
pitch and by properly lubricating the molds before 
pouring the concrete. Concrete laundry tubs being 
manufactured today have a finish which equals or 
surpasses natural stone. This finish is snow- 
• white, highly glazed and few people believe it is 
concrete. 

The only economical way to manufacture a 
satisfactory concrete laundry-tub is to cast the 



A Two-Compartment Laundry Tray with Back Board. 

entire tub in one mold, allow it to set from 15 to 
18 hours, draw the cores and take the outside 
mold off, and the tub is ready for crating without 
any finishing or trowelling whatever. This elim¬ 
inates all unnecessary labor and produces a tub 
which is unequalled for strength, durability and 
appearance. 

Over 95 % of the tubs manufactured today are 
of concrete, and it is surprising to know the num¬ 
ber of these tubs sold per year and the scarcity of 
concrete laundry-tub manufacturers. 

























































































































































































264 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

Investigation shows that there are only 35 man¬ 
ufacturers of laundry-tubs in the country, which 
includes manufacturers of natural stone, porce¬ 
lain, enameled iron and other types of tubs. 

Concrete laundry trays are made of plain con¬ 
crete and also of reinforced concrete. There are 
about 20 plants in the United States doing a good * 
business and there is room for more plants prop¬ 
erly financed, properly designed and properly 
equipped. Although the demand for concrete 
laundry trays has increased .during the last few 
years this branch of the industry has not improved 
its manufacturing methods as rapidly as other 
branches of the concrete products industry. 

It seems that Charles Wesely, Chicago, can 
claim the honor of being the pioneer manufacturer 
of concrete laundry travs according to a story 
published in an issue of the Contractors Atlas, in 
1922. Mr. Wesely in the story says: 

The possibility of making laundry trays of portland 
cement concrete first presented itself to me over 40 years 
ago, and as the result of my experiments along this 
line, I offered the original concrete laundry trays to 
the trade in 1882. 

There are many advantages to a tray of monolithic 
construction which are not apparent to the casual ob¬ 
server. There are no joints to leak and the outlet drain, 
since it is placed when the tray is cast, is an integral 
part of the product, and has no gaskets to be affected 
by hot water. This is certainly an advantage because 
many a foot has slipped with disastrous effect on the 
owner of the foot, as a result of the combination of a 
leaky laundry tub and a wet soapy floor. 

Only the best of materials enters into the construction 
of these trays. Atlas is the cement used. It has been 
found to be absolutely uniform in quality. The tubs are 
easily kept clean, because of the smooth uniform surface 
which is an inherent property of the materials used, 
when properly manufactured and worked, and because 
of the specially rounded corners which are molded as an 
integral part of the rest of the tub. The whole thing 
is strongly reinforced throughout with l / 2 in. mesh steel 
wire cloth, which doubles the assurance that the trays 
will not crack or break. All corners and edges are 


LAUNDRY TUBS 265 

strongly guarded by the metal rims against the chipping 
caused by rough usage. 

The metal wringer guard is another feature whrch is 
not without its good points. These, with the drain con¬ 
nection as mentioned above, are all put in place when the 
trays are cast, so that they actually become an integral 
part of the whole. 

Trays are made with single, double and triple basins, 
and with or without backs, and when the backs are pro¬ 
vided, water taps are also included. 

Sinks made in the same manner have proven them¬ 
selves quite popular as have the combinations of sink 
and tray. When not in use, the tray has a cover that 
acts as a drain board. This latter is especially advan¬ 
tageous for use in small cottages, where there is no 
basement and the kitchen must be used as a laundry on 
wash day. 

The advantage of low price, combined with the eco¬ 
nomical permanence of concrete, make these articles 
very attractive to the home builder. 

The fact that Mr. Wesely has been engaged in 
the manufacture of concrete laundry trays for 40 
years indicates the stability of this industry. 

Properly made concrete laundry trays give ex¬ 
cellent service and can be made and sold at a fair 
profit. Steel molds of the best design should be 
used. This is a product that is especially adapted 
for manufacture with a vibrator. The patented 
vibrator consists substantially of a platform to 
which a horizontal reciprocating motion is trans¬ 
mitted. Molds of special design are mounted on 
the table or platform and the vibrator is thrown 
into motion after which the filling of the mold is 
started. 

As may be expected it is necessary to obtain 
an extremely dense concrete in laundry trays 
especially if the trays are reinforced. The walls 
are thin and the passage of moisture from the 
inside of the tray to the steel reinforcement must 
be prevented. If rusting occurs spots of rust will 
develop on the surface of the tray and complaint 
will likely be made that the tray is not satis¬ 
factory. 


266 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


The cost of producing a concrete laundry-tub 
complete is less than the actual cost of the raw 
materials for tubs such as enamel, stone, porce¬ 
lain, etc. The concrete tub is a far more satis¬ 
factory and superior product. 

The future of this business is very promising, 
as there is very little competition, the cost of 
production is reduced to a minimum, the market 
is large and attractive prices are obtained for the 
concrete laundry tub. 

It is but recently, however, that one desiring 
to engage in the manufacture of concrete laundry 
trays could buy in the open market molds and 
instructions for making these concrete units. 
Now that such molds and instructions are avail¬ 
able the manufacture of concrete laundry trays 
should increase to a point where the demand 
would be supplied. 

It should be understood, however, that the man¬ 
ufacture of cheap, poorly made trays will injure 
and not benefit the industry. Good materials 
must be used and proper manufacturing processes 
employed to the end that trays will be sold which 
will give satisfactory service. Only quality con¬ 
crete laundry trays should be placed on the 
market. An inferior tray will ruin a dozen sales, 
a quality tray, make them. 

Prospective manufacturers of concrete laun¬ 
dry tubs should investigate the possibilities in this 
branch of the industry and should obtain the 
proper equipment and knowledge of manufactur¬ 
ing processes. 

The words tub and tray have been used as 
synonyms, as in some districts one word is used • 
and in other districts the other word to indicate 
the same product. Tubs are better known to the 
average housekeeper. The word tray, while com¬ 
monly used in the laundry tub trade, is not so 
well known by prospective buyers. 


CHAPTER XXVIII. 


GARBAGE AND ASH RECEPTACLES. 

Concrete plays an important part in promoting 
sanitation and fire prevention. As means to these 
ends some cities, notably Detroit, Mich., insists 
that sanitary, fire resistant garbage and ash recep¬ 
tacles be used—the result is the wide use of con¬ 
crete receptacles. 

A number of patented molds are on the market 
and all of them have merit. Most of the designers 
of the molds have had practical experience in 
making and selling concrete ash, garbage and rub¬ 
bish receptables. These molds are of steel. 

The manufacture of these products can be un¬ 
dertaken as an individual business or as a depart¬ 
ment of an existing products plant. The units are 
reinforced and a rich concrete mixture is required 
for a high grade, tight, durable receptacle. Con¬ 
crete is mixed to a wet consistency as the recep¬ 
tacles are made in accordance with the poured 
process, the concrete being poured into the mold 
and consolidated by rodding, or by vibrating the 
mold. 

The many advantages of concrete ash and gar¬ 
bage receptacles are not as well known as their 
merits deserve. 

It is generally recognized that the ordinary 
garbage can or wooden receptacle is a breeder of 
disease and a home for vermin and that wooden 
ash receptacles greatly increase the fire hazard. 
Ordinary garbage receptacles are usually infested 
with disease carrying flies and rats. A nationally 
known authority on germ diseases states that a 
large percentage of deaths, from tuberculosis and 
similar maladies are caused by the improper dis¬ 
posal of garbage. Fire insurance companies and 
heads of fire departments are calling the atten- 



268 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


tion of the people to the increasing numbers of 
fires caused by placing hot ashes in inflammable 
containers. The loss of property from such 
occurrences amounts to $3,000,000 yearly. By 



Concrete Garbage and Ash Receptacles Add to the Ap¬ 
pearance of Home Property. 

installing properly designed and well made con¬ 
crete receptacles, all damage of spontaneous com¬ 
bustion and fires will be reduced to a minimum. 

Concrete garbage and ash receptacles have 
been successfully manufactured. They overcome 
all of the disadvantages present in receptacles of 
other construction. Concrete receptacles are sani- 





GARBAGE AND ASH RECEPTACLES 269 


tary because they cannot leak or become saturated 
with obnoxious liquids and they are readily 
flushed out with a garden hose. They cannot be 
carried away or battered by the garbage collector. 
Precast receptacles can be molded in attractive 
designs and become a harmonious unit in beauti¬ 
fying the grass or garden plot. This is in direct 
contrast to the ordinary type of receptacle of un¬ 
sightly appearance. 

Every home, flat, apartment and hotel and 
restaurant is a prospect for both garbage and ash 
receptacles. The market for concrete receptacles 
is limited only by the number of buildings in each 
district now built and to be erected—a permanent, 
growing business for years to come. 

Those manufacturing concrete ash or garbage 
receptacles should realize that in these products 
only high grade concrete should be used. The 
concrete should be dense, waterproof and weather¬ 
proof. The units should have a smooth finish 
and the color should be uniform and the surface 
unspotted. A good looking product will be a 
good advertisement. 

In selling the receptacles stress should be placed 
on the fact that some cities have passed ordinances 
making the use of such receptacles, or their equal 
in service, imperative. An appeal should be made 
to the home owner’s pride and desire to maintain 
the health of the family. A back yard should be 
kept as neat as a front yard. Improvement in 
one yard will inspire the neighbors to improve 
their premises. Advertising in local newspapers 
is advisable and will help sell the receptacles. 


CHAPTER XXIX. 


CONCRETE SEPTIC TANKS FOR 
SEWAGE DISPOSAL. 

Modern highways are enabling many persons to 
live outside of the crowded cities. While subur¬ 
ban life has many desirable features yet it is 



Diagram Showing Lineup of Three De Lhorbe Concrete 

Septic Tanks. 


necessary that thought be given to the sanitary 
disposal of sewage. This necessity has resulted in 
the sale of many concrete septic tanks of varying 
types. 

Tanks are built of reinforced concrete slabs so 



SlWltAM 


q5ut 




— 

S | 



0,1 bit — • I 1 



' — s 





2 £ 



Longitudinal Section of Three De Lhorbe Septic Tanks as 

Originally Designed. 


designed that when assembled they form a septic 
tank of three or more compartments and are also 
made up of units each a complete compartment. 











































271 


SEPTIC TANKS 

i he units are generally circular in cross section. 
Each unit consists of a compartment, a lid and a 
hand hole cover or stopper, or the lid may be 



A Pair of Concrete Septic Tanks Showing Details of 
Sections and Pipe Connections. 


made without the hand hole. The units may be 
made with or without a bottom. If made without 
a bottom a concrete base is poured into the ex- 



A Motor Truck Load of Septic Tanks En Route to a Farm. 

cavation for the tank and the cylindrical units are 
set on the fresh concrete, the connecting pipe be- 

































272 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

tween house and the first tank and between the 
tanks are set. The outlet pipe is connected to the 
outlet cone, the covers set and the earth backfilled 
over the tanks. 

For the best service good concrete is required 
and should be reinforced. Units should be made 
in metal molds of correct design. 

Some makers of septic tanks are doing a good 
business with this one product alone. Other 
products manufacturers are making concrete 
tanks as a side line either in a small way or in a 
large way by installing a special department for 
septic tank manufacture. 

Care should be taken by the seller of concrete 
tanks to see that tanks of adequate size, for the 
service to be given, are supplied. Tanks too 
small will create an unfavorable impression. 
Where the requirements are such as to necessitate 
a larger capacity than can be supplied in factory 
made septic tanks, monolithic construction should 
be recommended. For the average farm house 
or residence pre-cast concrete septic tanks are 
satisfactory. For country clubs several batteries 
of tanks may be required or if the cost of several 
batteries of tanks is too great, then recourse can 
be had to monolithic concrete construction. 


CHAPTER XXX. 


BATH TUBS AND FLUSH TANKS. 

So far as recorded the Economy Concrete Co., 
Xew Haven, Conn., manufactured the first con¬ 
crete bath tub and the first concrete flush tank in 
the United States on a commercial basis. 

The bath tubs are of the built-in type. The 
process of manufacture is similar to that for 
burial vaults in that steel molds are used, the con¬ 
crete is reinforced and is poured into the molds 
and puddled. The inner surface is rubbed to ob¬ 
tain a smooth finish and a coat of enamel is ap¬ 
plied. The outer exposed surface can be given 
any treatment necessary to produce the finish de¬ 
sired or can be painted with waterproof paint or 
enamel. 

Concrete flush tanks for water closets have 
worked successfully and are rust proof. This 
product can be so made as to possess superior 
qualities which will result in giving service that 
will satisfy the home owner. As the walls of 
flush tanks must necessarily be thin, say about 
1 in., the concrete must be composed of a mixture 
of well graded aggregate, the proper cement con¬ 
tent and no more water than is necessary to prop¬ 
erly work the concrete. Proper provision must 
be made for the pipe connections and other fit¬ 
tings. The concrete should be well cured and not 
permtited to dry out quickly even after thorough 
hydration of the cement has been attained. 

It is not expected that every products maker 
will engage in the manufacture of bath tubs and 
flush tanks but the success of the pioneer manu¬ 
facturer indicates what ingenuity and persever¬ 
ance will accomplish in the concrete industry. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 


CONCRETE SILO STAVES 

Among the many profitable products that can 
be manufactured by the concrete products plants 
are concrete staves for building silos. These units 
are commonly referred to as “cement staves.” 
There are several types of such staves in common 
and popular use, which do not, however, dififer 
from each other in a very great degree. 

1. The Play ford stave is rectangular in shape, 
io ins. wide, 30 ins. long and 2*4 ins. thick. It is 
made by the tamped process. These machines 
are sold outright to the intending manufacturer 
of staves and no royalty is attached to subsequent 
use. 

2 . The Interlocking stave is made by the 
tamped process also. This is 28 ins. long, 10 ins. 
wide and 2^/2 ins. thick. It dififers from the 
Playford stave principally in that the top and 
bottom edges are shaped diagonally so that the 
hoops on the silo will come at each end of the 
stave as set in place in the silo. It is generally 
understood that state or similar rights are sold 
for the manufacture of Interlocking stave. 

3 . The S. T. P. rib stave is made by the cast 
or wet process in molds. This stave is 12 ins. 
wide, 30 ins. long and from 1 % to 2*4 ins. thick. 
The last dimension is due to the fact that the 
stave is formed with a rib along one edge. The 
manufacturing company sometimes sells its molds 
on a royalty basis. In other cases the molds are 
leased and royalty collected. 

4. The Hart stave is a reinforced concrete 
stave made by the wet process in molds and is 
especially adapted for heavy construction as coal 
pockets, grain bins and large silos. 

5. The Ensminger stave is of the book type 



SILO STAVES 


275 


and is made by either the semi-dry tamped pro¬ 
cess or by the poured process. The staves are 
10 ins. wide, 30 ins. long and 2}4 ins. thick. These 
staves are rectangular in area. 

6 . The Besser stave is of the standard book 
type and is made on a power tamper machine of 
large capacity. In the process of manufacture 
both faces of the stave are troweled. 

7. The Secor staves are dovetailed on one end 
and convex on the other end, which makes a 
good tight job. The staves are 30 ins. long, 12 
ins. wide and 2 y 2 ins. thick. The molds make 
the staves true to the circle on the outside and 
make a round and smooth job on the inside. Con¬ 
crete is tamped in the molds on a wood pallet. 

Tamped staves are usually made with a mix¬ 
ture of i part cement to 3 parts of sand, ranging 
in size from fine up to particles Y in. in greatest 
dimension. For staves made of wet mixture, the 
concrete is usually proportioned 1 part of cement 
to 2^2 parts of sand and 2j4 parts of pebbles. 
Sometimes the mixture is as lean as 3 parts of 
sand and 3 parts of pebbles to 1 of cement. The 
coarse aggregate varies in size up to Y\ in. 

As in the manufacture of all concrete prod¬ 
ucts, the same fundamentals of good concrete 
practice apply to the manufacture of concrete silo 
staves. A silo is a structure intended to keep its 
contents from air, therefore the concrete used 
in the various units of which the concrete stave 
silo is composed must be dense and watertight. 

Concrete silo staves should be steam cured to 
produce a product of the highest quality. If, 
however, steam curing is not practicable, then 
other moist curing must be practiced. 

Many products plants manufacturing concrete 
silo staves specialize also in erecting the silos 
complete. In fact, this is becoming more and 
more the practice. 


CHAPTER XXXII. 


CONCRETE STAVE STRUCTURES. 

In the last few years the manufacture and use 
of concrete staves has made great progress. To¬ 
day not only silos but also corn cribs, grain bins, 
water and oil tanks, pulp tanks and coal pockets 
are being constructed and those in service are 
giving satisfaction. 

Originally the design of a stave structure other 
than an ordinary farm silo, should be placed in 
the hands of a competent engineer. If necessary, 
thicker staves should be used than are commonly 
used for silos. 

Even farm buildings of many kinds and dwell¬ 
ings have been built and the last word in the de¬ 
velopment of concrete stave structures is still to 
be heard. Milk houses, smoke houses, chicken 
houses and barns can be built of staves in either 
round or rectangular cross section. 

Railroads are beginning to use concrete stave 
structures such as battery boxes, switchmen’s 
shanties, coal pockets, sand bins, water tanks, 
and watchmen’s shanties. One company operat¬ 
ing three concrete stave plants, at the time this 
is written, is selling the entire output to one rail¬ 
road. This indicates the wonderful possibilities 
in concrete stave manufacture. 

Rectangular structures such as garages, stock 
houses and dwellings may be made up of a com¬ 
bination of staves and steel or concrete vertical 
members acting as columns. These vertical mem¬ 
bers may be provided with grooves into which the 
staves fit when laid horizontally. Columns hav¬ 
ing two grooves on each face will permit the con¬ 
struction of a hollow air space wall. The wall 
in this instance would consist of two lines of 
staves, the outer being of ordinary concrete. The 



STAVE STRUCTURES 


277 


inner line could be made of coke breeze or cinder 
aggregate or other light weight aggregate which 
would permit plastering directly to the inner face 
of the wall. In this short article it is only de- 



Corn Crib Constructed with Ventilated Concrete Staves. 














































278 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


sired to indicate that the subject is well worth the 
study of those who may be interested. 

Concrete Stave Corn Cribs and Grain Bins. 

An example of corn crib and grain bin work 
combined is shown in the accompanying illustra¬ 
tion. 

In size the structure is 38 ft. 6 ins. long, 20 ft. 
wide and 15 ft. high. The radius of the semi¬ 
circular portions is 10 ft. V 2 in. Width of passage 
way is 12 ft. 6 ins. and its height is 10 ft. 

A monolithic concrete foundation extends 3 ft. 
below and 1 ft. 7 ins. above ground level. Thick¬ 
ness of the foundation ranges from 12 to 16 ins. 
For the foundation 1 :5 concrete was used. A 
concrete pavement was laid through the passage 
way. 

Steel Work. 

Steel work consists of I beams and channels. 
Corner posts are made up of a 3-in. I beam with 
a 3-in. channel riveted to the face of I beam 
flange to form the corner connection for the staves 
used in starting the circular wall sections. Two 
center posts on each side of the passage way are 
6 -in. I beams with the web of the I beam turned 
toward the passage way. To the faces of the 
flanges 3-in. channels are riveted providing 
grooves for holding the staves. Intermediate ver¬ 
tical members are 3-in. I beams so turned that the 
flanges form the sides of a groove to hold the 
staves. These vertical beams or studs as they 
may be called, are set in the concrete founda¬ 
tion while the concrete is green and are firmly 
anchored in place when the concrete hardens. 

The floor of the grain bin forms the roof of 
the passage way and is built of 6-in. I beams and 
concrete staves resting on the flanges. Solid con¬ 
crete staves are used for floor slabs. At each end 
of the passage way 6-in. channels are securely 


STAVE STRUCTURES 


279 


fastened in place and act as holding members for 
the tension rods which hold the corn crib staves 
in position in the circular wall sections. The rods 
pass through holes drilled in both flanges of the 
channels as may be noted in the accompanying 
illustration. 

Stave and Other Details. 

Staves are 30 ins. long, 10 ins. wide and 2 y 2 
ins. thick and are made of 1 :3 concrete. Staves 
were air cured. Ventilation is provided in the 
corn crib by screened openings, 4 by 9 ins., in the 
staves as may be noted by studying the illustra¬ 
tion. Screen rods are *4 i n - i n diameter and four 
rods are placed in each opening. 

Shoveling doors in the circular walls are 30 by 
30 ins. Doors in passage way walls are 30 ins. 
by 6 ft. 3 ins. Roof is of galvanized iron. Cupola 
window is 30 by 30 ins. 

Farmers need more structures which should be 
of durable materials. Concrete staves can be used 
to excellent advantage in constructing the many 
buildings and stave manufacturers are realizing 
these facts and are working to educate the farm¬ 
er by publicity gained from farm papers. 

Concrete Stave Office Building. 

In 1922 fire destroyed the building occupied by 
the city clerk of Mora, Minn. To obtain quarters 
in the least possible time, an office building was 
constructed and consisted of practically a section 
of concrete stave silo, 16 ft. diam., with a con¬ 
crete roof. Windows and doors were provided, 
as shown in the accompanying illustration. The 
city clerk was so well pleased with the concrete 
stave office that he did not want to move from it. 

This use of concrete staves is indicative of what 
can be accomplished by a little thought and in¬ 
genuity. There are many other structures which 
can be built of staves. Railroad companies are 


280 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


continually building structures along their lines 
in which staves could form an important part. 

Fire Resistance of Concrete Stave Silo Is 

Demonstrated. 

In the accompanying illustration can be seen a 
concrete stave silo standing in the midst of a hot 
fire which destroyed the frame barn and its con- 



This Concrete Stave Office Structure Satisfied the City 
Clerk of Mora, Minn., Who Did Not Want to Move 

from It. 


tents. The silo was uninjured. This is a case of 
history repeating itself as there are a number of 
photographs showing such silos standing after 
the barns were destroyed. This is an exceptional 
view showing the fire still raging. The extent of 
the fire and its intensity are indicated. Such 
views could be used by makers of concrete silo 
staves to sell their good products. 

There has come into considerable popularity 















STAVE STRUCTURES 281 

recently, a type of concrete stave intended par¬ 
ticularly for the construction of corncribs. Corn- 
crib staves have one or more openings in their 



Concrete Stave Silo Standing During and After a Severe 
Fire Which Destroyed the Adjoining Frame Barn. 

surface to provide for necessary ventilation of the 
finished corncrib. Reinforcing rods or mesh is 
cast in the stave when it is made to render the 
opening proof against entrance of rats or mice. 



Coal Pockets Built with Concrete Staves. 

Weather Proof. 


Fire and 













282 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

Coal pockets for local coal yards are now be¬ 
ing constructed with concrete staves. This field 
had been barely touched as yet and offers ex¬ 
cellent inducements to the manufacturer and 



Close Up View Showing Ventilator Gratings in Concrete 

Stave Corn Crib. 


erector of concrete stave structures. It would 
be well to advertise concrete staves for coal pock¬ 
ets in the coal papers which reach the retail coal 
dealer. The erection of concrete stave coal pock¬ 
ets will be a good investment for the coal dealer 
even where the coal pocket must be built on leased 
ground. When the lease expires the staves can 
be taken down and removed to another location 
or sold to another coal dealer. 































Factory Building Being Erected with Concrete Lumber 
Units—The Hahn System. 

ment to a product that is growing in popularity 
and ever increasing in usefulness. Concrete lum¬ 
ber developed from the concrete stave which itself 
developed from timber construction. The various 


CHAPTER XXXIII. 


CONCRETE LUMBER. 


Concrete lumber justifies a book in itself and 
therefore this chapter can give but sketchy treat- 


Appearance of Finished Concrete Lumber Building Before 

Application of Stucco. 

























284 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


concrete lumber systems use more or less staves 
in combination with other concrete structural 
units or in connection with concrete poured in 
place. 

Practically all concrete lumber systems are de¬ 
signed with the idea of using portland cement 
stucco as a finish. 

The Burton System. 

The Burton system of concrete unit construc- 



Difficult Corner Construction Accomplished with Concrete 

Lumber. 





















CONCRETE LUMBER 285 

tion for residences and small business blocks in¬ 
volves the use of cast concrete lumber designed 
and patented by Luther L. Burton, for 19 years a 
building contractor in Fort Worth, Tex. The 
Burton system consists of reinforced concrete 
slabs cast in 8-ft. 6-in. lengths and placed in ver¬ 
tical position on cast reinforced concrete beams 
on top of the foundation, then topped with other 
concrete beams which tie the vertical units into a 



Appearance of a Concrete Lumber Building After Finish 
Coat of Stucco Was Applied. 


rigid wall. The slabs are heavily reinforced with 
34 -in. deformed steel rods and expanded metal. 
It is claimed that one workman can set Burton 
units in 1 hour’s time sufficient to require 1500 
brick for the same amount of wall. That is, it 
would take a good bricklayer about 2 days of 8 
hours each to lay up as much wall as the Burton 
units would make in an hour. 









286 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


A cross section of a slab of concrete lumber 
cast in a Burton mold is T-shaped. The stem of 
the T is approximately 2 ins. long and in it at 
intervals may be embedded beveled nailing block 
to which are nailed 2 by 2-in. nailing strips for the 
reception of wooden lath, or there may be em¬ 
bedded in this section of the slab a number of 
metal lags or hooks for attachment of metal lath. 
After the inner plaster is applied there is ample 



Inclined Concrete Sea Wall Built of Precast Sections 

Driven to Place. 

dead air space in the wall to provide the desired 
insulation. 

In preparing molds for casting Burton concrete 
lumber, the reinforcement is first installed. The 
recommended mix is 1 :2:4, which is then poured 
in the top of the mold and either lightly tamped 
or the mold is vibrated to compact the concrete. 
The face of the slab presents a fairly smooth sur¬ 
face, yet sufficiently coarse of texture to sustain 
the foundation or scratch coat of stucco. 










CONCRETE LUMBER 


287 


The slabs are allowed to remain in the molds 
until they have set sufficiently to permit handling. 
They are then stood up in tiers in a curing room, 
as shown in the illustration. Experience in han¬ 
dling the slabs has indicated that, with no more 
than the ordinary care required for handling other 
concrete units, they are seldom broken or chipped 
and the loss from breakage is said to be small. 

Construction with Burton units is of the simple 
beam and column type, the vertical slabs, or units, 
being the columns. With the Burton units out- 



A Concrete Lumber Manufacturing Yard at Los Angeles, 

Cal. 


side walls of a 5-room bungalow can be erected 
under favorable circumstances in 8 hours by six 
laborers and a foreman. The 8-ft. slabs, when 
set in place vertically on the foundation beam, 
and capped with the top beam, provide the re¬ 
quired height for the rooms in the modern type of 
small cottage or bungalow. Shorter units used 
under the windows are cast in the same manner 
as the full length slabs, but in shorter molds. 

Dodson Concrete Boards. 

The Dodson Cement Products Co., Wichita, 













288 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


Kan., has developed the use of a concrete stave 
3 ins. thick, 10 ins. wide and of three different 
lengths, 7, 14 and 28 ins. respectively, to permit 
of breaking the continuity of horizontal joints 
which would occur if all staves used were of 
uniform length. The edges of the staves have 
square shoulders with a tongue' in the center which 
engages with a groove on the other side as in 
tongue and groove flooring. The square shoulder 
causes a straight wall. This joint eliminates the 
necessity for mortar. Running through the 



A Single Unit of Concrete Lumber Is Easily Handled by 

Two Men. 


boards from edge to edge are holes through which 
steel rods of high quality are threaded thus re¬ 
sulting in a reinforced stave structure. At corners 
of structures the rods enter the holes in connection 
angles and nuts are screwed on the ends of the 
rods thus making a tight connection. The cor¬ 
ners are finished by plastering with portland ce¬ 
ment mortar. 

Dodson boards are made on a power stave ma¬ 
chine of high productive capacity and are made in 
accordance with the best concrete practice. The 
boards have been used in many types of structures 



CONCRETE LUMBER 


289 


embracing handsome dwellings, bungalows, ga¬ 
rages, stores and industrial buildings. A lumber 
dealer used Dodson boards in constructing a build¬ 
ing 3 stories high, 70 ft. wide and 210 ft. long. 

Concrete boards take the same freight rate as 
brick or tile. Shipping distances are practical 
up to 200 miles. The percentage of breakage is 
practically zero. Building and loan companies 
and life insurance companies appraise concrete 
board construction in the same class as brick or 
tile. In Kansas the same insurance rate carries as 
on brick or tile. Concrete boards have been 



Stack of Finished Concrete Lumber in Yard of the Man¬ 
ufacturer, Los Angeles. 


erected as cheaply as cts. a sq. ft. One experi¬ 
enced superintendent with common labor to as¬ 
sist forms a crew. 

The Hahn System. 

The basic unit of this system is a reinforced 
concrete board 3 ft. long, 1 ft. wide and 2 ins. 
thick. One edge and one end of each board are 
grooved and the opposite edge and end carry a 
tongue to fit the grooves in abutting units. Each 
board is reinforced with two '34-in. steel rods 
placed parallel to the long edges of the unit. On 
the upper inside edge of each board three notches 
or cut-outs are molded in the concrete. At the 










290 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


time of manufacture of the boards, short loops 
of No. 11 galvanized iron wire are placed so that 
the central portion of the wire protrudes into the 
notches as a loop, the free ends of the wire being 
firmly embedded in the concrete. 

Concrete boards are set up, their grooved edges 
uppermost, to form the inner and outer portions 
of a wall. Wire ties are hooked through the wire 
loops embedded in the boards, securely tying the 
two portions of the wall together. In this way a 
double wall with a continuous central air space is 



Retaining Wall at Naples, Cal., Built of Concrete Lumber. 


obtained. The space between the inner and outer 
walls may be varied as desired. 

At intervals in the hollow wall thus formed by 
the two rows of concrete boards, vertical concrete 
studs are poured. These studs may be suitably 
reinforced to meet the strength requirements of 
the building erected. Studs are placed at the ver¬ 
tical joints of the boards. The wire ties at the 
ends of the boards are embedded in the vertical 
concrete studs. This method of construction 
gives rigidity to the wall and the monolithic con¬ 
crete studding provides ample sustaining power. 

Forms for casting the vertical studs are pro¬ 
vided in two ways. Interlocking crosS concrete 
units similar in general design to the concrete 














CONCRETE LUMBER 


291 


boards may be used. Mr. Hahn has also per¬ 
fected collapsible wooden forms which are placed 
in position in the wall, the concrete poured and 
the forms removed. At the time of pouring con¬ 
crete studs thin slabs of Insulite are placed on the 
inner surface of the studs so that in no part of the 
wall is there a concrete bond between the inner 
and outer surfaces. It is therefore possible to 
plaster directly upon the inner surface of a Hahn 
wall without danger of condensation. 

.Concrete lumber is also used for floor construc- 



Application of Nailing Strips to Concrete Lumber Wall. 


tion. Horizontal monolithic sills or joists are 
poured and concrete boards are used for the floor 
surface in a similar manner to that in which they 
are used in wall construction. Much ingenuity 
has been displayed in perfecting methods of tak¬ 
ing care of special construction, such as pouring 
a monolithic concrete cap at the top of the wall, 
and the manufacture of ornamental trim and pre¬ 
cast sills and lintels. Without describing these 
methods specifically it may be said that a user of 
the Hahn process is in position to satisfy every 
ordinary architectural and constructional re¬ 
quirement. 

Machines used in the manufacture of Hahn 
concrete boards are simple but are designed with 






































292 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 



Example of Wall and Floor Construction in Accordance 
with the Sawyer System. 










































































































CONCRETE LUMBER 293 

such ingenuity that numerous special units as well 
as the ordinary hoards can be made on them. 
Boards carrying sections of precast water table 
on their outer surfaces, those with wooden nail¬ 
ing blocks embedded in them and fractional 
boards of any length less than 3 ft. are a few of 
the special units that can be easily made. Molds 
in which the boards are cast are solidly con¬ 
structed and are self squaring so that there is no 


V/nt* osfri? as hu.7*p # 
jo\*y w»t« hoj Pitch 


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-TtwfoA4Ar ^UPPOKTina 
foHM» AT tout JO {AT ONt 
WAT; 4fU* CSlCUTt 

n HAS ATfAlAtQ - 


COT OOT To 6400 IMiow 
iMCfc* Totrntp orr-wtCM 
OfTM AMO wovtrH. - 


r '-*Pcn*7 or 

mu <W A*nnT 

**} * po« 


Floor Construction with Sawyer Units Used Also for 

Roots. 


probability of their becoming misshapen or out of 
alignment. 

Concrete Lumber Co/s System. 

A system of concrete lumber has been devised 
by the Concrete Lumber Co., Los Angeles, Cal. 
The methods and equipment used have been de¬ 
veloped by the company as a result of its ex¬ 
perience. 

The works and yards in Los Angeles are on 
the outskirts of the city, where reinforced concrete 
boards and other members are made in standard 
dimensions required in building construction. 
That is, the system provides for all the parts of a 
cottage or other building, and at the plant there is 
produced and kept on hand a stock of lumber of 
standard sizes as to length, width and thickness. 
For instance, the board, or slab, of standard size 
is 8 l / 2 ft. long, ly$ in. thick, and of widths rang¬ 
ing from 6 ins. to 24 ins. This is made of con¬ 
crete composed of 1 part cement and Z l / 2 parts 














294 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

of tested sand. In using this ratio it requires 
bag of cement for a slab 8^4 ft. long, 1% ins. 
thick and 24 ins. wide. The slab is reinforced 
with two %-in. deformed steel bars, each 8 ft. 4 
ins. long, and 18 square welded-joint steel wires 
of American Steel No. 032. 

As integral parts of the wall slab a concrete 
studding is cast along each side of the slab, both 
projecting upward on the same side. This design 
not only provides for studding to give solidity to 
the structure and to support the plastered wall on 
the inside, but allows adjoining slabs to be held by 
an interlocking joint. 

In preparing the reinforcement for the forms, 
the wire mesh is unwound from the reel and 
pulled through a wire straightener, 60 ins. wide. 
This serves to flatten out the wire mesh, after 
which the mesh is cut to the required length and 
width for the slab reinforcement. The ends are 
fastened to stay rods, and a strip on each side is 
bent at right angles, each strip standing vertically 
to reinforce the studding. 

A special form for each slab is supported in a 
horizontal position by solid ground sills, and a 
number of such forms are placed side by side for 
pouring, with separating strips to confine the con¬ 
crete for each slab to its own form. The rein¬ 
forcement is anchored in place and concrete is 
poured, spread and leveled oft* at the top, and 
thoroughly tamped. The slab is cast with the 
studdings, or side projections, downward. After 
the cement has set, the forms are removed and 
the slabs turned over, and then they appear in 
transverse rows. This is followed by 20 days of 
curing, when the slabs are racked up in stock piles. 

In making the mixture of cement and sand for 
the slabs, only enough water is used to make the 
material plastic. That is, the extremely wet, 
quaking mix is not considered the best practice 


CONCRETE LUMBER 


295 


' for this product. The company has 4 acres of 
land at the plant and eventually most of it will be 
utilized for pouring forms and curing yards. 

Slabs and members of other designs to apply to 
various types of construction of course are sub¬ 
ject to the same methods, but with forms to meet 
the requirements. 

In ordinary building construction, slabs 8j/ 2 ft. 
long, iy 8 ins. thick and 24 ins. wide are the basic 
units. Slabs of varying lengths and widths are 
used to conform with the designs of various build¬ 
ings, around door and window openings, to con¬ 
struct walls of varying heights and to break 
horizontal joints between slabs. 

To construct a wall, slabs are set on end, the 
projections at the edges of the slabs innermost. 
At the time of manufacture the projections at 
each edge of the units are provided with trans¬ 
verse holes. When the slabs are erected bolts are 
passed through these holes, solidly uniting the 
adjacent slabs. The projections, thus united, form 
vertical concrete studs on 2-ft. centers. At the 
corners of the wall monolithic concrete columns 
are poured, the abutting slabs providing part of 
the form for the poured concrete. 

In the construction of dwellings and larger 
buildings, furring strips are placed on the studs 
to support either wood or metal lath, and the in¬ 
terior plaster coats applied. This construction 
provides a hollow wall through which there is no 
direct concrete connection. The completed build¬ 
ing is thoroughly insulated and there is no danger 
of interior condensation. For smaller buildings 
such as garages, the slabs alone provide a sub¬ 
stantial and economical single wall construction. 

Concrete lumber is used for floor construction 
in much the same manner as it is employed in 
wall construction. Slabs are laid horizontally, 
their projections uppermost, and are bolted to- 


296 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


gether. The projections form the floor joist to 
which is fastened nailing strips for the accom¬ 
modation of wooden flooring. 

The construction of a sea wall at Long Beach, 
Cal., of precast concrete slabs, heavily reinforced, 
continues to be of much interest. This consists 
of a row of interlocking concrete slabs, each 42 
ins. wide, 5 ins. thick, and 17 ft. 7j/2 ins. long, 
and set at an inclination of 53 deg. from the hori¬ 
zontal. This supplanted a vertical wall previously 
built to resist the impact of waves. The new wall 
was built outside the old vertical wall that remains 
partly in place. The tops of the two walls were 
bonded together by a parapet wall of concrete. 
The precast slabs were driven to a vertical depth 
of 10 ft. into a stratum of clay. Driving was 
accomplished by a steam hammer and a water jet, 
the slabs being handled by a hoisting engine. An¬ 
other sea wall of concrete lumber was built at 
Naples, Cal., as is shown in one of the illustra¬ 
tions. 

The Sawyer System. 

The Sawyer system of concrete house construc¬ 
tion, invented by Frank Me. M. Sawyer, architect 
and economist of California, represents a scientific 
and economical method of durable building. 

Briefly described, the Sawyer system consists 
of the manufacture of precast concrete slabs so 
designed that they are interlocking and self-align¬ 
ing. These slabs form the inner and outer por¬ 
tions of the wall. Extending the entire height of 
the wall, in the space between the two rows of 
slabs, there are reinforced solid concrete studs 16 
ins. apart. Constructional details are shown in 
the accompanying illustration—which is a section 
through a Sawyer system concrete wall. A close 
study of this drawing will convince the practical 
builder of the simplicity and effectiveness of the 
method employed. 


CONCRETE LUMBER 


297 


Buildings constructed by this wall process are 
light hut exceptionally strong. The vertical col¬ 
umns or studs are tied into the foundation and 
into the monolithic beam or plate which is formed 
at the top of each story. In this manner the house 
is tied in every way, horizontally and vertically, 
and in large buildings—reinforcement gives added 
strength. The curtain walls or side slabs carry no 
weight as they merely serve to complete the con¬ 
struction by forming the much desired hollow’ 
wall. 

Among the many advantages of this system is 



The Sawyer System of Wall and Floor Construction Being 
Subjected to a Severe Test. 


the important one of minimizing the labor cost of 
construction. No unit in the w’all weighs more 
than 14 lbs. so that they are handled with ease 
and rapidity. Skilled workmen are not required 
on the erection because of the self-aligning and 
self-plumbing features of the units and one work¬ 
man can easily lay 600 ft. of wall per day. 

Another important feature of Sawyer wall 
construction is the fact that almost perfect in¬ 
sulation is obtained. The air spaces between the 











.298 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

studs are equal to 75% of the gross cross sectional 
area of the wall so that the use of material is 
extremely economical. The interior plaster coat 
is applied directly upon the concrete slab surface 
and no interior furring and lathing is required. 
Stucco is applied upon the exterior surface. 

A system similar to the wall construction is 
used for the construction of floors and ceilings, 
making it possible to build an entirely fireproof 
house by this method. Floor or roof design 
develops a two-way beam construction and gives 
about 75% air insulation. Two men can lay 
approximately 800 sq. ft. of floor per working 
day. Details of the Sawyer system concrete floor 
or roof construction are shown in the accompany¬ 
ing illustrations. 

Wall units and interlocking keys are cast in 
wood molds consisting of only four pieces. These 
molds can be readily manufactured by any sash 
and door factory at low cost. Molds are laid flat 
and concrete poured in them and leveled off. A 
thin layer of sand is then sprinkled over the con¬ 
crete after the initial set and another frame placed 
on top of the one just filled. This operation is 
continued until the molds are racked to such a 
height that it is inconvenient for the workmen to 
handle the freshly filled molds. As these beds of 
poured concrete slabs build up, the forms from 
the lower slabs are removed and used for the 
upper layers. The layer of sand accomplishes 
two objects: First, it prevents the possible adhe¬ 
sion of the units; and second, it gives the units a 
rough surface to provide a proper bond for’ ex¬ 
terior stucco or interior plaster coats. 

The method of placing the finished product in 
tiers for curing results in a saving of space. As 
it is not necessary to move the units from the time 
they are first racked until they are shipped there 
is no breakage in handling. 


CONCRETE LUMBER 299 

Kent’s System of House Construction. 

This system was evolved in 1919 to meet the 
housing problem, by reducing the cost of building 
and the time of erection by means of eliminating 
most of the skilled labor usually employed on the 
walls. 

The designer, Col. Herbert V. Kent, gained 
much experience during the first year of the Great 
War, while he was chief for the barrack branch, 
in various systems of construction, temporary, 
semi-permanent and permanent, and after he re¬ 
tired he patented the “Kent” system, which is de¬ 
scribed in this chapter. He claims that it is an 
economical, rapid, and simple system and that it 
results in a strong, dry and warm house. 

The system is based on the familiar “Pier and 
Panel” principle, the piers being of reinforced 
concrete, anchored into the foundations, and the 
panels consisting of long thin slabs of concrete, 
or other suitable material, which bridge the spaces 
between the piers. Piers and slabs are pre-cast; 
the former have bolts cast horizontally in them, 
projecting inwards, and to these bolts the slabs, 
door-frames and window-frames are secured by 
nuts, by unskilled labor in a very short time. 

In an ordinary small house the piers are set up 
at intervals of 4 ft. 6 ins., and the bolts are set 
at 18-in. vertical intervals, the slabs being 18 ins. 
high. In a dwelling house there are two skins of 
slabs, each 2 ins. thick, with an air space of 5 ins., 
which is practically continuous both horizontally 
and vertically all round the house, for the piers do 
not block more than 2]/ 2 ins. of the air-space, leav¬ 
ing 2p2 ins. clear. 

Outer slabs are secured against the shoulders of 
the piers by means of saddle blocks of hard wood 
or “Woodcrete,” which are threaded on the bolts 
and pressed by nuts against the vertical edges of 
the slabs. 


300 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


Inner slabs are placed against the faces of the 
saddle blocks (which are 5 ins. deep) and are se¬ 
cured there by nuts on the bolts or by the cotter- 
pins. The nuts will usually be countersunk, the 
corners of the inner slabs being rebated to one 
inch, and the inner face of the wall is then plas¬ 
tered to a flush surface. But where it is desired 
to get at the air-space, for instance in the scul¬ 
lery, where waterpipe, etc., will be led off inside 
the walls to the upper floors, etc., the bolts will 
project beyond the inner face of the slabs and 
these will be secured by means of vertical cap- 



Method of Securing Slabs by a Cotter Pin and Rebating 
the Outer Slabs to Conceal the Columns—Kent System. 


ping with ornamental nuts, showing on the face 
of the wall, which will present a panelled ap¬ 
pearance. 

The air-space can be utilized for housing all 
the service pipes out of sight, i. e., for gas, water 
and electricity. A hot pipe can be run right 
round the house inside the wall so as to give a 
warm air jacket round the entire house. In a 
block of barracks, or even in a village of detached 
cottages, built on this system, every house can be 
‘‘mural heated” in this way from a central refuse 
destructor, super-heated air or steam at over 100 
degs. F. being laid on like gas or water, and in the 




































CONCRETE LUMBER 


301 


same way a constant supply of hot water will also 
be available by using jacketed coppers, without 
lighting a fire in any house. Fireplaces and chim¬ 
neys can thus be dispensed with, except where 
required for cooking, and where gas or electricity 
is available there need be none of these expensive 
items. 

In a tropical climate it will be possible to drive 



Inner and Outer Slabs, Kent System. 


refrigerated air into the walls, and the resulting 
temperature inside the buildings, in a hospital, say, 
should be perceptibly lowered, especially if a hol¬ 
low roof is cooled in the same manner. 

A door-frame takes the place of five slabs, and 
a window-frame takes the place of three slabs. 
Windows can be metal casements, or ordinary 





























































302 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


wooden sash-frames can be used if preferred. 
Small windows for lavatories, larders, etc., can be 
fitted into the middle of a bay, taking up two 
slabs in height. 

Upper floors can be laid on horizontal rein¬ 
forced concrete slabs, bridging across reinforced 
concrete floor beams, which will rest on corbels 
pre-cast on the piers; and a jointless floor 

of “Woodcrete” can be laid over the slabs, with 
rounded-up corners at the walls in lieu of a skirt¬ 
ing board, so that there is no place where dust can 
lodge. 

In carrying out the work, the first operation 
after clearing the ground is to put in the founda¬ 
tions, and as all the weight is borne on the 
columns their footings only need be considered. 
Quite a small trench is all that is required for the 
plinth course between the columns. Any good 
carpenter can make the molds for the piers and 
slabs, but it is necessary that great care should be 
taken to space the bolts accurately and to fix them 
truly at right-angles; the reinforcing rods must 
also be fixed correctly. The columns can be cast 
flat at right-angles to the sides of the house, and 
pockets should be left in the concrete foundations 
for projecting rods to dip into, the gaps in the 
plinth course being just wide enough to take the 
5-in. width of the columns. The latter can be 
up-ended by hand, with the assistance of smali 
sheer legs, till they are vertical. They should 
then be guyed and set true with a plumb-bob, and 
the pocket filled in with a rich “super-cement” 
grout. 

The slabs can be made of a sawdust composi¬ 
tion such as “Woodcrete," which possesses advan¬ 
tages over concrete in being dampproof, vermin- 
proof, non-conducting and fire-resisting, while it 
can be molded to take the finest edges, and it can 
be nailed, screwed and even sawed. It is also a 


CONCRETE LUMBER 


303 


good material for “jointless” floors, curbs and 
stairs, and by its use practically all woodwork can 
be banished from the house, except in doors, cup¬ 
boards, etc. 

When the columns are set the outer slabs and 
window-frames and door-frames are set in posi¬ 
tion and nutted up. This operation is very simple 
and should not take more than a few hours for a 





Partial Front Elevation Showing Appearance of Slabs and 

Piers—Kent System. 


whole house. A simple derrick, traveling on a 
truck, can be rigged up to hoist the upper slabs 
into position and to lay the floor beams on the 
corbels where a concrete floor is used. No mortar 
or grout is required between the horizontal edges 
of the slabs, but they can be tongued and grooved 
and no rough casting outside is required. 

Laying of the reinforced floor slabs on the 
beams is a very simple matter. They also can be 
tongued and grooved, but this is not essential. If 




































































































































304 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


a ceiling is decided on, wooden fillets should be 
cast in the under side of the beams to make it fast 
to. Asbestos sheets can be used for ceilings. 

Service pipe can be laid along the saddle blocks 
and finally the inner slabs can be fixed in position 
and a thin coat of plaster applied to the faces of 
those walls where the nuts are countersunk. In 
climates exposed to extreme heat or cold, double 
windows are recommended, and the window 
boards can be perforated to allow the hot (or 
cold) air to get between the windows. 

Partition walls can be taken off any part of the 
outer walls by making slots, 3 ins. wide, down 
the slabs, and they can also be made on the same 
principle of 3-in. breeze or “Woodcrete” slabs, 
plastered on both sides, making 4-in. solid walls. 

The system will lend itself to almost any style 
of architecture, fbr the form of the piers can be 
varied in many ways, molds being easily made to 
produce round or square columns, plain or fluted, 
or panelled, with pediments and capitals, or the 
columns can be flush with the face of the wall. 

An efifective way of treating the slabs is to cast 
them with V cuts to represent masonry block, 
when it will be difficult to see where the joints in 
the slabs occur. Rock-faced slabs can be easily 
made, and a “vermiculated” appearance can be 
produced by picking out the surface after it 
has set. 

The first “Kent” house was put up by the 
British War Office in 1920, for the caretaker of 
the Havengore bridge on the artillery ranges at 
Shoeburyness; it is in plan a square of five bays 
on each side, measuring 25 ft. 6 ins. by 23 ft. 
6 ins. It has three bedrooms, a bathroom, parlor, 
living room and kitchen. It contains about 14,000 
cu. ft. and cost in 1919, $4000 in England, but 
access to the site was frequently interrupted by 
artillery firing. The War Office reports that, 


CONCRETE LUMBER 305 

had it been built under normal conditions, four 
men (three of them unskilled laborers) could 
have erected it in 6 weeks at a cost of under 
25 cts. a cu. ft. 

The officer who put it up went so far as to say 
that in his opinion the cost per cubic foot on a 
big job, where there is repetition work, should not 
exceed 12 cts. Considering that prices at the be¬ 
ginning of 1920 were at top notch (50 cts. a cu. 
ft. and more in many cases), and that the house 



How the Dodson System Utilizes Power Tamped Machine 
Made Silo Staves for Buildings. 


was rough-cast outside (an unnecessary expense), 
it is not claiming too much to say that the price 
in 1924 ought not to be more than 18 cts. a cu. ft. 
and the time for erection should be much shorter 
than it is on most systems. It is one of the chief 
advantages claimed for this system that the labor 
bill does not have time to mount up. 

Occupants of this house say that it is drier and 
warmer than the brick houses they have lived in 
before, and although it is constantly exposed to 
the blast of the heaviest guns, they have never 
noticed the house to shake; this is remarkable 
testimony to the rigidity of the structure. 
























































CHAPTER XXXIV. 


CONCRETE DRAIN TILE. 

Although the use of concrete in pipe and drain 
tile manufacture is not new—in fact, there 
are concrete tile drains in existence which were 
laid 50 or more years ago and which, so far as 
the concrete itself is concerned, are still in per¬ 
fect condition—within recent years the manufac¬ 
ture of concrete pipe and tile has developed into 
an industry of considerable magnitude, the 
strides made during the past few years having 
been very rapid. 

Along with the development and extension 
of uses that have been made of concrete in re¬ 
cent years, the concrete pipe and tile industry 
may be mentioned as one which, in the hands of 
some manufacturers, has met with variable suc¬ 
cess. There have been many poor pipe and tile 
made as well as good ones, and in many cases 
the causes of failure, as well as the causes of 
success, have been obscure to manufacturers and 
users alike. This condition has led to a number 
of carefully conducted investigations by research 
workers to distinguish between good and bad 
tile, and point out the contributing causes to suc¬ 
cess as well as to failure. 

Where disintegration of concrete tile in use 
has been noted, experiments to determine the 
cause have generally definitely fixed the trouble 
as due to the use of too lean a mixture, too dry 
a mixture or improper hardening of the product 
after forming, any one of which contributes to a 
porous tile wall structure. Placing the tile in the 
ground before the concrete has sufficiently hard¬ 
ened to afford proper resistance to the solvent 
solution of soil water upon the cement, has also 
been determined as a cause of disintegration. 



DRAIN TILE 


307 


One marked characteristic of concrete tile prop¬ 
erly made is their ability to resist frost action 
or alternate freezing and thawing conditions. 
Most of the failures in concrete tile manufacture 
have been due to the fact that those engaging in 
the industry were not willing to recognize and 
apply those fundamentals which are well known 
to lead to success. 

As in the manufacture of all concrete prod¬ 
ucts, proper selection, proportioning and mixing 
of materials are vital. The question of what 
cement to use can be disposed of in the same 
manner as has been done in this and other sec¬ 
tions. Any portland cement meeting Standard 
Specifications will answer the purpose. The sub¬ 
ject of aggregate, that is, the sand, is likewise 
governed by requirements already reviewed else¬ 
where. Sand should range from the finer par¬ 
ticles to those that will pass, when dry, a screen 
having four square meshes per linear inch, and 
should preferably be a silicious material free 
from dust, soft particles, loam, vegetable or 
other foreign matter. 

By far the greater quantity of concrete tile 
made range from 4 to 10 ins. in diameter, so on 
account of the thickness of tile walls it is not 
practicable to use sand or other aggregate in 
which the particles exceed %. in., but where the 
tile or pipe has a wall of sufficient thickness to 
permit use of a larger aggregate, then the maxi¬ 
mum size may range to in., provided the en¬ 
tire bulk of aggregate is properly and uniformly 
graded so as to reduce voids or air spaces to the 
lowest volume possible. Some tile manufactur¬ 
ers have been guilty of the practice of breaking 
up discarded tile such as would be culled out be¬ 
cause of imperfections, and using such broken 
up material as aggregate. This practice should 
be condemned in the strongest terms, as tile made 


308 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


of such aggregate lack both the strength and 
density necessary, because cement will not bond 
well with cement coated surfaces. 

It was at one time believed that tile should 
have a porous wall, but this has been shown un¬ 
necessary, in fact, has been proved quite undesir¬ 
able. All soil water that must be taken up by 
the tile lines finds its way into the line through 
the open joints. 

For drain tile up to and including 10 ins. in 
diameter, concrete should be mixed in the pro¬ 
portions of i sack of portland cement to not 
more than 3 cu. ft. of sand. For the manufac¬ 
ture of drain tile over 10 ins. in diameter, in 
which coarse aggregate having a maximum size 
of particles of *4 in. is used, the concrete should 
be mixed in the proportions of 1 sack of portland 
cement to not more than 5 cu. ft. of fine and 
coarse aggregate, measured separately, and in no 
case should the mixture contain more than 3 
cu. ft. of fine aggregate to each sack of cement 
used. Many manufacturers of concrete drain 
tile and sewer pipe use a mixture of 1 : 2^4 con¬ 
crete and thereby obtain products of excellent 
quality. The grading of the aggregate should 
be known and the proper cement content deter¬ 
mined. 

Except in sizes 12 ins. in diameter and above 
it is not practicable to make tile by the hand- 
tamped process, nor is it practicable to make the 
smaller sizes such as are used in greatest quan¬ 
tity for land drainage by the so-called poured 
process. As in other concrete work, much de¬ 
pends upon using a concrete mixture containing 
exactly the right amount of water. Mixtures 
which are too wet do not permit the tile to be 
removed from the mold immediately after form¬ 
ing, while mixtures that are too dry do not pro¬ 
duce dense tile. 


DRAIN TILE 


309 


The various tile making machines now on 
the market generally operate either by forming 
the tile by a revolving packer head or with tamp¬ 
ers and revolving table on which is set the pipe 
mold. In such machines it will be found practicable 
to use aggregate having a maximum size of parti¬ 
cles of 34 in. for all sizes of tile up to 12 ins. In 
sizes larger than 10 ins. aggregate having a maxi¬ 
mum size of y 2 in. may be used. Any deficiency of 
fine material in the aggregate causes difficulty in 
the manufacturing process, wastage of tile in 
removing from the mold, rough surface, and 
stone pockets and pin holes through which water 
spurts when internal water pressure tests are ap¬ 
plied. Deficiency in fine material within rather 
wide limits does not decrease the strength of the 
finished product. Excess of fine material causes 
low strength in finished pipe or tile, and with 
ordinary mixtures tends to produce pipe or tile 
which will show seepage under internal pressure 
tests. The tendency to use an excess of fine 
material in the aggregate is to be particularly 
guarded against because, unless tile are tested, 
the manufacturer may be deceived as to the qual¬ 
ity of the product which he is making, owing to 
the smooth workmanlike appearance of tile in 
which aggregate containing an excess of fine 
material has been used. 

Drain tile which show a low percentage of 
absorption are always to be preferred to those 
which show high absorption. If the manufac¬ 
turer desires to make a test to determine the 
absorption, it is best to dry the pipe or tile for 
awhile after thorough curing, at a temperature 
of 212 degs. F., until they show no further loss 
in weight. Tile will absorb their full capacity of 
water within 24 hours after immersion. Tests 
have shown that high strength and low absorp¬ 
tion go hand in hand. 


310 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


As with other cement or concrete products, 
proper hardening of the product is very impor¬ 
tant and nothing is better than steam hardening. 

There is positively no danger of well-made 
cement pipe and tile not being strong enough to 
resist all earth pressure when in actual use. Tests 
have proved cement tile far superior in strength 
to clay tile. It must not be thought that cement 
tile have reached their maximum strength when 
they leave the plant yard. After the tile are in 
the ground, some of the particles of cement that 
have not been acted upon before, continue to 





Neat Method of Piling Drain Tile in Storage Yard. 

crystallize and to strengthen the tile. That this 
is possible is proved by the fact that cement 
mortar which has actually been in walls for sev¬ 
eral years has been reground, made into test 
specimens, and found to have a comparatively 
high tensile strength. This experiment has even 
been repeated several times upon the same speci¬ 
men and still a certain strength indicated. 










CONCRETE TILE 


311 


Another decided advantage of concrete pipe 
and tile is the fact that they are uniform in 
shape. They are not warped from burning, as 
often happens to the clay product. Each prop¬ 
erly made cement tile is a perfectly shaped cylin¬ 
der that readily and easily fits up close to the 
adjoining one. In laying there is no turning and 
twisting to make the joints close. There are no 
rough nor’deformed ends that prevent the tile 
from fitting closely together. This is of par¬ 
ticular advantage when used in a mechanical 
ditcher or automatic laying machine. 

It is desirable for a manufacturer to make 
occasional tests on the product which he is turn¬ 
ing out to determine its quality, not only to make 
certain he is attaining a certain standard, but to 
help him maintain a uniformity of standard. 

CAPACITY PER CAR OF PIPE OR TILE. 


SOLID LOADING. 


Size of 


< 

Pipe 

Pipe 

Pipe 

Weight 

Pipe 



per 

per 

per 

per 

in. 

Rows 

Layers 

Row 

Layer 

Car 

Car Lb. 

4 


19 

14 

28 

532 

7448 

52.136 

5 


16 

11 

28 

448 

4928 

49,280 

6 


13 

10 

28 

364 

3640 

50,960 

7 


11 

8 

2S 

308 

2464 

39.424 

8 


10 

7 

28 

280 

1960 

43,120 

9 


8 

6 

28 

224 

1344 

33.600 

10 


8 

6 

28 

224 

1344 

37,632 

12 

; _. 

6 

r 

0 

18 

108 

540 

23,762 

14 


5 

4 

18 

90 

360 

20.160 

15 


5 

4 

18 

90 

360 

23,040 

16 


5 

3 

18 

90 

270 

21,000 

18 


4 

3 

IS 

72 

216 

20,520 

20 


4 

3 

18 

72 

216 

24.408 

22 


3 

2 

18 

54 

108 

15,222 

24 


3 

2 

18 

54 

108 

17,280 

26 


3 

2 

14 

42 

84 

19 320 

28 


2 

2 

14 

28 L' 

56 

14.560 

30 


2 

2 

14 

28 

56 

17,360 

32 


2 

2 

14 

28 

56 

18,480 

33 


2 

2 

14 

28 

56 

21,416 

34 


2 

2 

14 

28 

56 

22.960 

36 


2 

1 

11 

22 

22 

9,948 

38 


2 

1 

11 

22 

22 

10.714 

39 


2 

1 

11 

22 

99 

— 

11.880 

40 


2 

1 

11 

• 2-2 

22 

12.166 

42 


2 

] 

11 

22 

22 

13 200 

44 


1 

1 

11 

11 

11 

7,326 

46 


1 

1 

11 

11 

11 

7.854 

48 


1 

1 

11 

11 

11 

8 151 




312 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


CAPACITY PER CAR OF PIPE OR TILE 
PYRAMID LOADING. 


Size of 



Pipe 

Pipe 

Pipe 

Weight 

Pipe 



per 

per 

per 

per 

in. Rows 

Layers 

Row 

Layer 

Car 

Car Lb. 

4 ... 

19 

19 

28 

(as to 

5320 

.'7,240 

5 ... 

16 

16 

28 

(order of 

3808 

38,080 

6 ... 

13 

13 

28 

(layer). 

2548 

35,672 

7 ... 

11 

11 

28 


1848 

29,568 

8 ... 

10 

10 

28 


1540 

33,S00 

9 ... 

8 

8 

28 


784 

19,600 

10 ... 

8 

8 

28 


784 

22,052 

12 

6 

6 

18 


378 

16,632 

14 ... 

5 

5 

IS' 


270 

15,120 

15 

5 

5 

18 


270 

17,280 

16 ... 

5 

5 

18 


270 

21,060 

18 ... 

4 

4 

18 


180 

17,100 

20 ... 

4 

4 

18 


180 

20.340 

22 ... 

3 

3 

18 


108 

15,228 

24 ... 

3 

3 

18 


108 

17,280 

26 ... 

3 

3 

14 


84 

19,320 

28 ... 

2 

2 

14 


42 

10,920 

30 ... 

2 

2 

14 


42 

13.020 

32 ... 

2 

2 

14 


42 

13.860 

33 ... 

2 

2 

14 

% 

42 

16.212 

34 ... 

2 

2 

14 


42 

17,220 

36 ... 

2 

2 

11 


33 

14,322 

38 ... 

2 

2 

11 


33 

16.071 

39 ... 

2 

2 

11 


3.3 

17,820 

40 ... 

2 

2 

11 


33 

18 249 

42 ... 

2 

2 

11 


33 

19,800 

44 ... 

1 

1 

11 


11 

7.326 

46 ... 

1 

1 

11 


11 

7,854 

48 ... 

1 

1 

11 


11 

8,151 


Recommended Methods for Making Concrete 
Drain Tile (Or Machine Made 
Sewer Pipe). 

1. Portland Cement. The cement shall meet 
the requirements of the current Standard Speci¬ 
fications for Portland Cement of the American 
Society for Testing Materials. 

2. Fine Aggregate. Fine aggregate shall con¬ 
sist of sand, crushed stone or gravel screen¬ 
ings, graded from fine to coarse, and passing 
when dry a screen having 4 square meshes per 
linear inch; shall be preferably of siliceous ma¬ 
terial, clean, coarse, free from dust, soft parti¬ 
cles, loam or vegetable matter; not more than 
30 % shall pass a sieve having 50 meshes per 
linear inch and not more than 6 % shall pass a 



DRAIN TILE 


313 

sieve having ioo meshes per linear inch. Fine 
a gg re g ate shall be of such quality that mortar 
composed of i part portland cement and 3 parts 
fine aggregate by weight shall show a strength 
equal to or greater than the strength of 113 mor¬ 
tar of the same consistency made with the same 
cement and standard Ottawa sand. 

In no case shall fine aggregate contain more 
than 3 % by weight of clay, loam or organic 
matter. 

3. Coarse Aggregate. Coarse aggregrate shall 
consist of pebbles or crushed stone graded in 



Method of Bracing Carload of Drain Tile. 


size, retained on a screen having 4 meshes per 
linear inch; shall be clean, hard and durable; 
shall contain no vegetable matter, and ohall be 
free from dust, soft, flat or elongated particles. 

Greatest dimensions of coarse aggregate shall 
not be greater than one-half the wall thickness 
of the drain tile in which it is used. 

4. Water. Water shall be clean, free from 
oil, acids, strong alkalis or vegetable matter. 

5. Measuring Materials. A sack of portland 
cement (94 lbs. net) shall be considered 1 cu. 
















314 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


ft. The method Gf measuring materials for 
the concrete shall be one which will insure sep¬ 
arate and uniform proportions of each of the 
materials at all times. 

When cement in bulk is used, the cement 
shall be accurately measured in such manner as 
to insure that the measured amount of cement 
used as the equivalent of I sack, in the propor¬ 
tions as specified below, shall be 94 lbs. 

6. Mixing. The concrete materials shall be 
mixed in a machine mixer that will produce 
concrete uniform in color and homogeneous in 
appearance. 

7. Retempering . Retempering of mortar or 
concrete which has partially hardened, that is 
remixing with additional materials or with 
water, shall not be permitted. 

8. Proportions. For drain tile up to and in¬ 
cluding 10 ins. in diameter, the concrete shall 
be mixed in the proportions of 1 sack of port- 
land cement to not more than 3 cu. ft. of fine 
aggregate. For making tile over 10 ins. in diam¬ 
eter, in which the coarse aggregate has particles 
more than Y -in. in diameter, the concrete shall 
be mixed in the proportions of 1 sack of port- 
land cement to not more than 5 cu. ft. of fine 
and coarse aggregate, measured separately. In 
no case, however, shall there be more than 3 cu. 
ft. of fine aggregate to each sack of cement. 

9. Consistency. Concrete shall be mixed as 
wet as can be used and permit the immediate 
removal of the outer casing from the drain tile. 
The tile shall show on the outer surface web¬ 
like markings, or water-marks, indicating free 
moisture after the removal of the jackets. In¬ 
terior surfaces of drain tile shall show trowel 
marks caused by free water coming to the surface 
under the troweling action of the revolving 
packer-head or core, in case such is used. 


DRAIN TILE 


315 


10. Forming. Drain tile shall be made in such 
a manner as to insure a dense and uniformly 
compacted product with smooth ends and inner 
surfaces. Drain tile shall be formed so as to 
prevent laminations or planes of weakness. Each 
tile shall be of cylindrical section, the size being 
designated by the interior diameter. The thick¬ 
ness of the tile shall be practically uniform 
throughout and shall not be less than one-tenth 
the diameter for sizes up to io ins., nor one- 
twelfth the diameter for larger sizes with a mini¬ 
mum thickness of y in. The diameter shall not 
vary more than 3 % from that specified. 

11. General Clauses. Immediately after the 
removal of the casings, tile shall be placed in the 
curing chamber not exposed to sun and wind 
and may be hardened either by the application 
of water vapor, which is known as the steam 
curing method, or by sprinkling, known as the 
water curing method, or in a fog room, into which 
water is injected through spray or fog nozzles 
thereby filling the room with a foggy mist. 

Steam Curing. When steam curing is used, 
the following practice should be followed: With¬ 
in 1 hour after removing the outer casings, the 
tile shall be placed in a closed chamber where 
the temperature is not lower than 50 degs. F. and 
protected from currents of air and from ex¬ 
posure which will tend to cause evaporation of 
moisture from the concrete. Within 12 hours 
after removing the tile from the machine, the 
temperature in the chamber shall be raised to 
between 100 and 160 degs. F., and an atmosphere 
saturated with water vapor introduced through a 
perforated pipe laid throughout the length of the 
kiln as near the floor as possible. When the 
outside temperature during the day does not fall 
below 50 degs. F., the tile shall be cured as above 
described for not less than 48 hours, after which 


316 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

they may be removed and piled in the yard. They 
shall then be sprinkled not less than three times 
daily for 7 days. When the temperature of the 
outside atmosphere falls below 50 degs. F., tile 
shall be cured for 72 hours, after which they 
may be piled in the yard, but need not receive 
further treatment. 

Water Curing. Whenever it is found im¬ 
practicable to introduce steam into the cham¬ 
ber, the tile shall be placed in a closed chamber 
and protected from currents of air and from all 
exposure, which will tend to cause evaporation 
of moisture from the concrete. After they have 
sufficiently hardened so that the application of 
water does not injure them, they shall be kept 
constantly wet on the surface by sprinkling with 


STANDARD DRAIN TILE. 


Quantities 

Proportion. oer 

1000 Ft. 


1 

s 




v u 

fed 



cx 

'“fa 

.2© 

V-i 

O 

+-> • 

w 

T3 

G 

G 

aJ . 

. to 





c w 

r.® 

0) £ 

O 

rnal Di 
, Inches 

1 Thick- 
i, Inche 

G 

o> 

<V 

-*-> 

be 

© 

Sh 

ime C 01 
Cubic 
100b Ft. 

G 

C ” 

<1) 0) 

© b 

-4_J 

Gpe 

bo 

2.2 

Ho 

- r—i 

<4-1 

O G 

o> 

-*-> rv 
X! ^ 
be« 

Number fe 
Tile per To 

fa+J 

fa 

'djc 

c 

.2 bo«s 
3 Ci -3 

Inte 

eter 

Wal 

ness 

- S 

<D 

O 

be 

be 

< 

1.5 1 

5 2 

d) ctS 

Offl 

bex 

be 3 

■iH ^ 

t£H 

3 -M © 
Ctf 02 a 

4 

V 2 

1 

3 

1.81 

4.35 

1.94 

3.5 

285.7 

1200 

6 

% 

1 

3 

2.64 

6.34 

2.82 

5.0 

200.00 

1200 

8 

% 

1 

3 

4.35 

10.38 

4.65 

8.5 

117.60 

1200 

10 

% 

1 

3 

6.52 

15.65 

6.98 

12.5 

80.00 

1200 

12 

1 

1 

3 

10.50 

25.20 

11.25 

20.5 

48.78 

1200 

14 

1 V 4 

1 

3 

15.38 

36.93 

16.47 

30.0 

33.33 

1200 

10 

1% 

1 

3 

19.28 

46.24 

20.60 

37.5 

26.67 

1300 

18 

1% 

1 

3 

23.65 

56.75 

25.30 

46.0 

21.74 

1400 

20 

1% 

1 

3 

28.50 

68.40 

30.50 

55.5 

IS'. 00 

1500 

22 

1% 

1 

3 

33.50 

80.30 

35.82 

65.5 

15.25 

1600 

24 

2 

1 

3 

42.10 

100.90 

45.00 

81.5 

12.27 

1700 

26 

2% 

1 

3 

T0.60 

145.50 

64.80 

118.0 

8.46 

1800 

28 

2% 

1 

3 

68.25 

163.80 

73.10 

133.0 

7.50 

1900 

30 

3 

1 

3 

80.00 

192.00 

85.60 

155.0 

6.41 

2000 

32 

31/4 

1 

3 

92.00 

220.80 

98.4 

176.0 

5.66 

2100 

34 

3% 

1 

3 

101.80 

244.50 

108.90 

198.0 

5.04 

2200 

36 

3% 

1 

3 

115.90 

278.00 

124.0 

225.5 

4.48 

2300 

38 

3% 

1 

3 

126.30 

303.00 

135.20 

246.0 

4.05 

2400 

40 

4 

1 

3 

142.20 

341.20 

152.10 

276.5 

3.62 

2500 

42 

4 % 

1 

3 

159.00 

381.90 

171.00 

304.0 

3.28 

2600 




DRAIN TILE 


317 


water for not less than 7 days whenever the 
temperature does not fall below 50 degs. F., and 
for 14 days when the temperature does fall be¬ 
low 50 degs. F. After removal from the cham¬ 
ber, the tile shall be stored in the yard. 

12. Time of Storage. Tile shall not be ship¬ 
ped until they have been stored in the yard 
for not less than 14 days after steaming or 
sprinkling. 

Report of John T. Stewart 

In refutation of attacks on the concrete pipe 
industry it will be well to study a report made in 
1923 by John T. Stewart, C. E., consulting engi¬ 
neer on drainage and wet land development. Mr. 
Stewart is a member of American Society of Civil 
Engineers, Western Society of Engineers and has 
long been identified with drainage and its prob¬ 
lems. His report follows: 

Reports unaccompanied by specific descriptions of local 
conditions have frequently been circulated, calling atten¬ 
tion to failures of concrete drain tile in peat soils and 
soils having a high percentage of decayed vegetable 
matter. Soil acids have frequently been referred to as 
the cause of such disintegration. To my knowledge, no 
-concrete drain tile, functioning properly, have failed in 
this country which would meet the specification require¬ 
ments of the American Society for Testing Materials 
at the time they were laid. The failures that have oc¬ 
curred have been of tile produced by farmers or manu¬ 
facturers who did not fully recognize the importance of 
proper methods of manufacture. Failures of poorly 
fabricated tile can be expected in any class of soil and 
it is fundamentally wrong to condemn the use of con¬ 
crete drain tile of good quality because of these failures. 

As a specific example, in 1910 a car of concrete tile 
was installed in a peat bog near Grand Rapids, Minn., 
which varied from 3 to 22 ft. in depth. This bog has 
been described by Dr. F. J. Alway, professor and chief, 
Division of Soils, University of Minnesota, as intensely 
acid as any peat in Minnesota. The quality of tile used 
was considered fair in 1910 but could not be classed as 
standard at the present time. These tile were carefully 
inspected by me in 1912, 1915 and 1921. In 1912 all tile 


318 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


were in good condition except a slight disintegration on 
a few individual pieces. In 1915 a settlement was found 
on one line which caused water to stand 8 ins. over the 
tile. To 'correct this settlement 400 ft. were taken up 
and relaid in September, 1916. Of the tile taken up, 90% 
were relaid. The 1921 inspection revealed the fact that 
the disintegration noted in 1912 and the disintegration 
which occurred on the settled line between 1912 and 1915 
had not again become active, and all other tile were in 
excellent condition after 11 years’ service. 

The Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station in De¬ 
cember, 1915, issued Special Bulletin 75 on the durability 
of concrete drain tile. This publication was the result 
of studies made on reported failures of concrete drain 
tile in both upland and peat soil. The summary of this 
investigation attributed the failures that had been re¬ 
ported to improper methods of fabrication as “the use 
of too lean a mixture, use of too dry a mixture, improper 
hardening of the product after it is formed, and placing 
the tile in the ground before the concrete has sufficiently 
hardened.” 

In 1921, 52 drain tile systems on 38 farms in nine 
counties in Wisconsin were inspected by C. E. Richard¬ 
son and M. W. Loving of Milwaukee and Chicago, re¬ 
spectively. Samples of soil, soil water and drain water 
were obtained for laboratory examination and at least 
four samples of drain tile were examined at each point 
of inspection. Drainage officials, property owners, tile 
layers and tile manufacturers were interviewed in an 
effort to determine the cause of reported tile failures. 
Materials for analysis were sent to the Structural Mate¬ 
rials Research Laboratory of Chicago. Results of the 
examinations proved that no conditions existed in Wis¬ 
consin that could be expected to disintegrate concrete 
tile of standard quality. 

Soil acids were found to be very weak, relatively 
speaking, and a large per cent of the peat soils and 
water examined were found to be slightly alkaline. 
Since few attempts had been made to require drain tile 
manufacturers, either concrete or clay, to furnish prod¬ 
ucts meeting the requirements of the Standard Speci¬ 
fications for Drain Tile of the American Society for 
Testing Materials, about 6% of the tile examined was 
found in poor condition. These failures were equally 
divided among clay, sandy and peat soils, proving con¬ 
clusively that poorly made drain tile will not give satis¬ 
factory service in any -class of soil. 

The soil on one farm on which tile was found in 
perfect condition after 5 years of service showed by 


DRAIN TILE 


319 


chemical analysis the highest percentage of soil acidity 
found in the entire state and the acidity was greater 
than in similar soils on two adjoining farms on which 
tile were found in bad condition. In one system tile 
were badly disintegrated which had been laid in peat 
only 3 years, while in another system, tile which had 
been in peat 31 years was found to be in excellent 
condition. 

The writer inspected concrete tile in 10 peat bogs in 
seven public drains in> Blue Earth county, Minn., in 
December, 1922. These tile had been laid from 5 to 10 
years, with the exception of one line which had only 
been laid 2 years. At the time of laying the tile were 
placed at a depth of from 4^4 to 10 ft. below the sur¬ 
face. ' At four openings the tile were bedded on the 
clay at the bottom of the peat and at three the tile were 
under the peat and at three in the peat. At all openings 
the tile were in contact with peat soil and were in a posi¬ 
tion to receive large quantities of peat water. The tile 
at all openings were found hard and in excellent con¬ 
dition. 

There are no citations in either German or American 
literature which prove conclusively that failures of con¬ 
crete tile have been caused by humic acid. The line of 
Wisconsin tile which has laid 31 years in peat and the 
lines which have functioned properly for 11 years in 
the intensely acid peat at Grand Rapids, Minn., are 
ample evidence of the immunity of concrete tile to 
vegetable acids. 

Concrete drain tile has been extensively used for 
drainage purposes since 1907. For the past 16 years I 
have been in close touch with tile operations throughout 
the state of Minnesota as well as the middle west. In 
1921 I spent 4 months examining tile failures wherever 
they were reported. During this period I interviewed 
many drainage engineers and a number of government 
and state officials having in charge matters pertaining to 
drainage. I am firmly convinced that the few failures 
of concrete tile which have occurred in peat or in soils 
containing a high percentage of decayed vegetable mat¬ 
ter were primarily due to the poor quality of the product. 
Undoubtedly humic acid or any other similar substance 
would be a contributory cause of failure of poorly made 
tile. The fact that a tile has roughened or that grains 
of aggregate can be rubbed from the surface does not 
indicate that the tile is weak or that it will eventually 
fail. 

The amount of concrete tile which is known to have 
actually failed in peat soils is negligible in comparison 


320 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

to that which is exhibiting every evidence of durability 
and the risk of draining either shallow or deep peat 
with well fabricated concrete tile is no greater than 
with any other commercial tile. 



This Concrete Pipe Shows the Typical Web-marking 
Indicative of Proper Water Content. 










CHAPTER XXXV. 


CONCRETE IRRIGATION PIPE. 

Concrete pipe are extensively used in Califor¬ 
nia and elsewhere in irrigated lands and is giving 
excellent service. Pipe for this purpose are to a 
great extent manufactured by power driven ma¬ 
chines. There are a number of machine manu¬ 
facturers in California making a specialty of such 
equipment while in states east of the Rocky moun¬ 
tains a number of machine makers have placed on 



Stock of Irrigation Pipe in Yard of a California Pipe 

Plant. 


the market machines which will produce concrete 
drain tile and irrigation tile and also sewer pipe. 
Irrigation pipe are usually made with a beveled 
slip joint or, as it is sometimes called, a tongue 
and groove joint, although this is not entirely 
correct. 

Irrigation pipe requires the same grade of con¬ 
crete as do drain tile and sewer pipe. Those de¬ 
siring to engage in the manufacture of concrete 
irrigation pipe should obtain the catalogs of pipe 








322 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

and accessory manufacturers and become familiar 
with pipe line fittings, wells, etc., so that all acces¬ 
sories will match with the pipe. 

Concrete irrigation pipe properly made should 



Motor Trucks Plan Important Part in Delivering Irriga¬ 
tion Pipe. 


last indefinitely as it will grow stronger with age. 
In California and other states where the climate 
is mild steam curing may not be necessary in 
which event the pipe must be supplied with ample 
water by sprinkling or spraying, so the cement 



Concrete Valve Section fo 
Use on Irrigation Pipe Lin< 


will hydrate. In lands 
where freezing tem¬ 
peratures prevail dur¬ 
ing the winter, steam 
curing is advisable 
and will permit the 
manufacture of the 
pi p e the full 12 
months. 

This branch of the 
pipe industry is sus¬ 
ceptible to greater ex- 
r pansion and will war- 
rant careful study on 














IRRIGATION PIPE 


323 


the part of those situated in irrigated districts. 
The market should be there. Good concrete ag¬ 
gregate and portland cement being available, the 
maker of concrete irrigation pipe should prosper 
if careful attention is given to all points of the 
business. 

While irrigation is more generally practiced in 



Concrete Relief Stand for Irrigation Pipe Line Used at 
University of California Experiment Farm. 

the arid sections of the country, the necessity for 
definite control of moisture supply to insure sue- 










324 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


cess in raising certain valuable crops has led to 
its extensive adoption in other regions as well. 
Examples of successful irrigation'practice can be 
found in almost every part of the country. 

Concrete Pipe Endorsed by Government 

Officials. 

In 1921 the U. S. Department of Agriculture 
published a bulletin entitled “The Use of Con¬ 
crete Pipe in Irrigation,’’ prepared under the 
direction of Dr. Samuel Fortier, a recognized 

international authority on irrigation. The im¬ 
portance of efficient irrigation systems, made pos- 



V' > 

Concrete Overflow Distributing Hydrant with Wasteway 
Set at an Angle. This Prevents Air Troubles. 

sible by the use of concrete pipe, is emphasized 
in the following statements by Dr. Fortier, quoted 
from that bulletin: 

In recent years, owing to the rapid increase in the 
value of soil products, intensively farmed land under 
irrigation systems has risen m many cases to double its 
pre-war value. This great advance in the value of irri¬ 
gated land has placed a premium on water and a wide¬ 
spread effort is being made to convey, distribute and 
use the appropriated waters in such a way as to incur 
the least possible loss. Every gallon of water wasted 
by seepage and absorption in porous earthen channels or 
in careless use on the land rohs the farmer of so much 








IRRIGATION PIPE 


325 


profit, whereas every gallon saved protects fertile soil 
from water-logging and results in larger yields and 
profits to the grower. 

An experience covering a period of over a quarter of 
a century on the Paciffc coast, and more especially in 
California, has demonstrated that large quantities of 
water can be saved by the substitution of pipe for 
earthen ditches. The results of a large number of 
measurements made by the irrigation .division of this 
bureau show that the transmission losses in earthen 
channels vary from 10 to 60% and average fully 35% of 
the quantity of water admitted through the intake. When 



Specimens of Irrigation Pipe of the Tongue and Groove or 

Bevel Joint Type. 


pipe are substituted for earthen channels, the loss of 
water in conveyance is usually negligible. 

The use of pipe for the carriage of water and of pipe 
sj'stems for its distribution to farmers not only prevents 
loss of water, but affords better facilities for its control, 
distribution and delivery. Irrigating land by means of 
open channels in earth is a laborious and unpleasant 
task, wasteful of water, time and effort. On the con¬ 
trary, it can be rendered comparatively easy and pleasant 
if the proper equipment is provided in the way of pipe, 
pipe systems with proper gates, turnouts and other fix¬ 
tures. The interest on the cost of such betterments for 
highly profitable crops is more than likely to be amply 
compensated for by the water and labor saved and a 
more uniform moistening of the soil. 

Concrete Pipe System Used on Delhi 

Project. 

Over 90 miles of concrete pipe, 10 to 30 ins. 
diameter, has been installed in the irrigation sys- 



326 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


tern of the Delhi State Land Settlement, Delhi, 
Cal. When completed the system will have used 
200 miles of pipe. In reference to this develop¬ 
ment, a bulletin issued by the Division of Land 
Settlements, Department of Public Works, State 
of California, in September, 1921, says as follows: 

Delhi settlers take water from the main highline of 
the Turlock system. From this it is distributed to the 
different farms by concrete pipe. Delhi is one of the 
largest systems of this kind in Northern California. It 
was used in the place of open ditches in order to save 
land, save water, lessen the damage to crops from 



Capstands Used to Control Water Below the Hydraulic 
Grade Line in the Delhi, Cal., Project. 


seepage and because it is the most convenient way of 
distributing water. 

The design of this system is unique and will be 
of particular interest to engineers interested in 
irrigation development. 

U. S. Reclamation Service Uses Concrete 

Pipe. 

At Yuma, Ariz., the U. S. Reclamation Service 
is installing a concrete pipe system to irrigate the 
first 6000-acre unit of the 40,000-acre Yuma Mesa 
development. A total of 20 miles of concrete pipe 
from 15 to 45 ins. in diameter will be required to 






IRRIGATION PIPE 


327 


deliver water to a given point on each 40-acre 
tract in the 6000-acre unit. The officials in charge 
state that approximately 5000 ft. of 15-in. or 
smaller pipe will be used to distribute water on 
each 40-acre ranch, making a total of 750,000 ft. 
of distributing lines, in addition to the 20 miles 
required for the main trunk lines. It is expected 
that the remaining 34,000 acres will be developed 
by irrigation, since the land, being free from 
frost hazards, is particularly adapted for growing 
citrus fruits of excellent quality. 

Concrete Pipe Operates Under Pressure. 

The following is quoted from a statement issued 
in 1920 by the Division of Publications, U. S. 



Installing Concrete Irrigation Pipe Lateral at Delhi, Cal. 


Department of Agriculture, announcing the pub¬ 
lication of a bulletin entitled “The Flow of Water 
in Concrete Pipe”: 

A general increase in the use of concrete for irriga¬ 
tion pipe lines has made it necessary to study concrete 
pipe from an engineering standpoint. This has been 
done by the irrigation engineers of the Bureau of Public 





328 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

Roads, United States Department of Agriculture, and 
the results are presented in Department Bulletin: 852. 

For a long time concrete was thought to be adaptable 
to low head pressure only but, with the better methods 
of construction now in use in this country, concrete pipe 
is often used for 100-ft. heads. In Europe -concrete pipe 
is subjected to much heavier uses and lines have been 
built to withstand pressure heads of several hundred 
feet. 1 

It is difficult to obtain any figures on the period of 
usefulness of concrete pipe. It is apparent, however, 
from studies made of pipe laid 38 years ago, that there 
is no material decrease in the carrying capacity. 

Quality of Concrete Pipe. 

Concrete pipe of standard quality will give 
good service for many generations. By insisting 
on standard quality when purchasing pipe the 
grower will avoid considerable inconvenience after 
his system has been installed. Concrete pipe, like 
any other material, will not give good service if 
improperly made. The irrigation engineers of the 
U. S. Government have investigated the troubles 
experienced by growers who have used poorly 
made pipe in their irrigation systems. The results 
of their investigations are discussed in the gov¬ 
ernment bulletin “The Use of Concrete Pipe in 
Irrigation,” from which the following statement 
is quoted: 

Both hand-tamped and machine made concrete pipe 
are often of very inferior quality, but it is encouraging 
to know that the quality is constantly improving. Most 
pipe makers will agree to deliver a high-grade pipe if 
the purchaser is willing to pay for it but, as long as the 
latter insists on getting the cheapest pipe, he is apt to 
get the poorest quality. Some reputable firms, however, 
will not make an inferior grade and do not try to com¬ 
pete with pipe makers who sell pipe that is made of 
poor materials, poorly tamped or that lacks the proper 
proportion or kind of ingredients. 

As regards durability, concrete pipe, if well made and 
laid, should last for generations. It is the improperly 
made pipe whi-ch causes failures and early renewal. The 
experience of Southern California shows that the good 
concrete pipe installed 30 years ago is still in excellent 


IRRIGATION PIPE 329 

condition, whereas some of the inferior pipe has been 
renewed in less than 5 years after laying. 

How to Determine the Quality of Concrete 

Pipe. 

Irrespective of its diameter, pipe should show 
no leakage under a hydrostatic pressure of 15 lbs. 
per sq. in. maintained for a period of 5 minutes. 
This pressure is equivalent to a head of approxi¬ 
mately 35 ft. Moisture merely penetrating the 
shell of the pipe and adhering to its surface should 
not be considered leakage. 

The outer surface of pipe made with concrete 
of correct semi-dry consistency should have dis¬ 
tinct web-like markings, as shown in an accom¬ 
panying illustration. This indicates that the proper 
amount of water has been used to give maximum 
strength and minimum absorption. 

When struck with a hammer a properly made 
concrete pipe will produce a clear ringing, metal¬ 
lic sound. . 


j 


CHAPTER XXXVI. 


CONCRETE CULVERT PIPE 

Precast concrete culvert sections may be round, 
square, triangular, egg shape or other shape. 
The rapid development of highways demands 
more culverts of durable types and concrete cul¬ 
verts will fill this need. Concrete culvert pipe 



Recommended Method of Backfilling Around and Over a 
Culvert Pipe in a Trench. Pipe Is Bedded on a 
1-In. Cushion. 


are made by machines and also by the poured 
process. In many states pipe smaller than 24 ins. 
in diameter are required to be of the bell end 
type. This is to prevent excessive breakage which 
might occur if the bevel type of joint is used. 
Where pipe are machine made the same practice 
will govern as is used in making concrete drain 
tile and sewer pipe by machines. Where molds 




CULVERT PIPE 


331 


are used in the poured process the manufacture 
is similar to that of poured concrete sewer pipe. 

Most highway departments specify that pipe 
12 ins. and larger in diameter shall be reinforced 
and although this seems unnecessary in pipe un¬ 
der 24 ins. in diameter yet the pipe maker must 
consider the specification requirements and figure 
accordingly. Whether culvert pipe are made on 
a small or large scale the matter of quality should 
be kept uppermost in the minds of the plant op¬ 
erator and the workmen. Less rejections will oc¬ 
cur if quality pipe are made. In fact if this sug¬ 
gestion is carefully followed it will be found that 


This Method Is Recommended in a New Fill. Pipe Is 
Carefully Bedded and Backfilling Well Tamped. 

but few, if any, pipe will be rejected. As cul¬ 
verts are designed to carry water and also the 
superimposed loads of earth and traffic they 
must give the same service as a sewer pip^. 

Circular culvert pipe sections may be made by 
machines and also in molds. Other sections are 
made by hand process usually in steel molds, so 
made as to retain the cement grout, as the leaking 
of the grout from the pipe through poor joints 
will result in a poor pipe section. Tight molds 
are essential for good work. 





332 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


Some culvert pipe sections are patented, on 
others the patents have expired and are therefore 
open to manufacture by any one. 

It will be well to interview township, county 
and state engineers, to ascertain what type of 
culvert pipe sections will be acceptable to these 
engineers before engaging in the manufacture of 
any particular type. After ascertaining the type 
which will be acceptable, the equipment and meth¬ 
ods to be employed should be carefully considered. 
An estimate of cost of plant, cost of manufactur¬ 
ing and selling price should be made. There is a 
good market for properly made concrete culvert 
pipe sections. But the market must be formed 
and developed by careful work and good sales¬ 
manship. 

Laying Concrete Culvert Pipe 

A ring of concrete, such as comprises a circular 
concrete culvert, should be laid properly and this 
requires care in backfilling. Pipe should have a 
good, firm cradle or bed under at least 90 deg. of 
the arc formed by the invert of the pipe. The soil 
on the side should be tamped solidly and tamping 
should be continued until a fill of at least 2 ft. 
above the pipe has been thoroughly consolidated. 
Notwithstanding the high grade of concrete, which 
is possible in practice, no pipe can give maximum 
efficiency in service unless it is carefully and 
properly installed in its final position. The ac¬ 
companying illustrations show recommended 
methods of laying concrete culvert pipe. 

Culvert pipe are often laid under new fills and 
the method recommended for laying is shown. In 
a new fill the earth should be thoroughly, tamped 
up to the springing line of the pipe. Still better 
results will be achieved if the new fill is thor¬ 
oughly tamped to the full height of the pipe or 
for 2 ft. above it. 


CULVERT PIPE 


333 


The State Highway Department of Washington 
has prepared diagrams and table of dimensions 
showing the construction of head and wing walls 
for pipe culverts. This information would be of 
value to all manufacturers of concrete culvert 



Sect/ oh 


fiote Omit apron beyond cutoff 
wo// on upstream end.- 



Plah 


Table of D/mems/ohs 


D/ame ter of P/PE. 

12“ 

18“ 

24’ 

30" 

36" 

A 

2 -6“ 

3 / 4 -* 

4 / 3 / 3 ’ 

5 // V 

s//ofy 

B 

/-' 9“ 

2-' 6" 

3 / 4 / 3 ’ 

4/lY 

4//o7i,’ 

C 

Z/0’ 

E/7" 

3 / 3 / 3 ’ 

3/JOV 

P4 V 

P 

0‘9‘ 

0//0’ 

0///’ 

PO" 

/JL0~ 

E 

P3 

//9‘ 

W 

z/m 

3/4 V 

F 

0-6" 

Oi 3" 

PO" 

P3" 

//6‘ 

a 

0-6' 

0/6" 

0 / 6 " 

0/6" 

0/6’ 

H 

PO" 

PO" 

PO" 

PO " 

PO’ 

/ 

0/4" 

0/6" 

0/S’ 

0-VO* 

PO" 


0 l /0 m 

PE" 

P6\‘ 

/-'//" 

Z l 3 W 

A 


0/7’ 

0/8" 

0/9" 

p/S" 

L 


E/3" 

2 /me 

3/6’ 

4 / 0 V 

M 

I/O" 

P6" 

2-0 “ 


3 / 0 ■■ 

n 

0/E" 

0/E" 

0/2*4 

0 / 3 “ 

0 / 3/4 

0 

0/4" 

0‘4" 

O/ 3 /f 

0/3" 

0/2*'*' 

p 

0/3“ 

0/3" 

0-3" 

0/3 " 

0/3" 

R 

0/7’ 

0/Si’ 

o-o4' 

070# 

0-70 V 

s 

o/sv 

//oi' 

P4'4’ 

P8" 

p// s r 

T 

0/S" 

0-7/" 

PEW 

P6" 

113/4 

u 

psy 

E’-OV 

E/SV 

3 / 3 W 

37/ f/ 

V 

znv 

2//0K 

3/7/*" 

4/3 w 

4//0H,’ 

W 

4 /sv 

S/St" 

7 J ZV 

e/bw 

9-3 V 

X 

// 3 " 

/W 

E/0" 

Z/4K 

wF 

r 

2/6" 

3 W 

4/0" 

4/8 w 

5/324 

Z 

3/0" 

3/Si," 

4/6“ 

5 / 2 W 

5 / 3/4 

cu. rds 

Cone 

?:ff- 

r+odtri 

0.62 

/.oe 

1.78 

E.60 

3.40 


Diagrams and Table Prepared by Washington State 
Highway Department on Culverts. 


pipe and in assisting local engineers in the prep¬ 
aration of plans, specifications and estimates. It 
would also be of assistance to the contractor in 
estimating the cost of installing the culvert pipe 
together with the head and wing walls. 






















































































































CHAPTER XXXVII. 


CONCRETE CULVERT SECTIONS. 

In many places a circular culvert is not prac¬ 
ticable and some type of box culvert is required 
to go in the limited space and to give the desired 
capacity. To meet this demand a number of cul- 



The Wendelkin Interlocking Reinforced Concrete Culvert. 


vert sections have been designed and are on the 
market. 

Due to the weight of concrete pipe and culvert 
sections the shipping radius is limited by the 
freight rates. Therefore there is sufficient busi¬ 
ness in most of the thickly populated states for a 



The Kammerer System of Reinforced Concrete Culvert 

Construction. 
















CULVERT SECTIONS 335 

number of culvert manufacturing plants. Cul¬ 
verts are used on highways and railways. 

Concrete culverts of the box type should always 
be designed by competent engineers so the cul- 



The Nelson System of Reinforced Concrete Culvert Con¬ 
struction. 


verts will have the strength to carry the loads in 
the service for which the culverts are sold. 

Some types of culvert sections are illustrated 
herein. 


i 
















CHAPTER XXXVIII. 


CONCRETE SEWER PIPE—PLAIN. 

Plain concrete sewer pipe are made, both by ma¬ 
chines and by using molds. For rapid production 
the power machines have proved popular in 
service. 

There are a number of sewer pipe machines on 
the market in addition to various types of molds 
used for making pipes of large diameter. Among 
the machines is one that can be arranged so that 
the mixture for the pipe is automatically fed to 



Three Methods of Reinforcing Concrete Pipe Showing the 
Difference in Position of Reinforcement. 

the mold and packer head, and may be used with 
a relatively wet mixture, which is necessary to 
high-grade pipe. It forms a pipe having what is 
described as bell and spigot ends. These machines 
can be had with molds, to manufacture all dimen¬ 
sions of pipe from 4 to 24 ins. in diameter. 

The correct consistency of concrete for machine 
made pipe is indicated when web-like markings are 
observed when the forms are stripped from the 
newly made pipe. These web markings are no¬ 
ticeable at all ages of the pipe. 

Pipe with bevel joints or as they are sometimes 
called, tongue and grooved joints, are also made 



REINFORCED PIPE 


337 



/ns/de ^ 

‘ytC: 

|-■- 

* 6- '• V P-' 

CjT'Tfr*— ‘C • - •* Vp.-'- f 


TortGUE rfriD G-ROOYE JoinT 



Lock Jo/ri T. f PA TErtTED) 



Hub A/ip Sp/got Jo/nr . 

Three Types of Joints Which Are in General Use in 
Reinforced Concrete Pipe. 


on machines of either the tamper type or the 
packer head type. Tamper machines are now 
available for making bell end pipe. The^forms 
or jackets used in making the pipe are generally 
of cast iron. As the pipe are stripped off the 
jackets as soon as they are delivered to the curing 
room, but few jackets are required for each size 
of pipe. The accompanying illustration shows 
the web marked surface on a pipe made of con¬ 
crete of the correct consistency. 






























CHAPTER XXXIX. 


CONCRETE SEWER PIPE- 
REINFORCED. 

Cast reinforced concrete pipe are now used 
very extensively in sewer work, both in small 
and in large cities. At the present time there are 
considerably over 200 cities in the United States 
and Canada using concrete pipe sewers. 

Many types of concrete sewer pipe are manu¬ 
factured. These differ, however, principally 
in the methods used to form joints and in 
the manner of reinforcing the pipe. Some types 
are circular in form, some oval, some combine 
oval and flat sections, some are hand-made and 
some are made by machine. Various methods, 
some of which are patented, are used to form 
joints. Some pipe have bell and spigot ends, 
ethers have plain ends which interlock in various 
ways, usually provided for when the pipe are 
manufactured. Which type or types are best is 
largely a matter of individual preference and the 
conditions encountered in the excavation, 
although the subject of quality, is one upon 
which there should be no difference of opinion. 

Regardless of their form or type, the value 
of concrete sewer pipe lies largely in its quality, 
and this is dependent entirely upon observing 
proven requirements of manufacture. Expe¬ 
rience has shown that cleanliness of the sand and 
pebbles or broken stone has a great influence 
upon the quality of concrete sewer pipe. No 
compromise should be made in the matter of 
clean, well-graded materials. 

In reinforced concrete pipe enough water 
must be used in the concrete mixture to make 
certain that there will be a perfect bond between 



REINFORCED PIPE 


339 


concrete and reinforcing metal. This means a 
wetter consistency than would be used for plain 
pipe manufactured by machine. But even for 
machine made pipe there should be enough water 
used in the concrete so that web-like markings 
will show on the outer surface of the finished 
product, uniformly from end to end when the 
molds are removed. 

Sewer pipe of large size, especially these above 
24 ins. in diameter, are usually manufac¬ 
tured by hand—often at the site of the work. 
The forms usually consist of properly shaped 
steel plates with the inner form so placed within 
the outer one that the shell of the finished pipe 
will be of the desired or required thickness. The 
forms are kept clean and free from rust by re¬ 
moving any particles of adhering concrete each 
time after use and by wiping the forms with oil- 
soaked waste, particularly just before again us¬ 
ing them. Depending upon the size of pipe to 
be manufactured, both inner and outer forms 
are constructed of two or more pieces properly 
stiffened, and fitted with necessary fastening and 
clamping devices. Usually inner and outer 
forms are so arranged that the inner form when 
set up with the outer one becomes self-centering. 

In the manufacture of concrete pipe by hand 
a somewhat arbitrary rule has been more or less 
recognized with reference to the thickness of the 
shell of such pipe. Some manufacturers base 
thickness of the shell on a factor which corre¬ 
sponds to one-twelfth of the diameter of the 
pipe in inches. Other manufacturers use a fac¬ 
tor of one-tenth, while there are times when 
specifications recognize both of these factors, de¬ 
pending on the size of the pipe. No doubt, un¬ 
der certain conditions a factor of one-twelfth 
gives ample strength and thickness, but if the 
service conditions to be met with are severe, a 


340 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

shell thickness equal to one-tenth of the diam¬ 
eter of the pipe is preferable. 

The concrete mixture to be used in the 
manufacture of pipe by hand should never be 
leaner than i sack of portland cement to 2 cu. ft. 
of sand, to 4 cu. ft. of pebbles or crushed stone. 

In order that the concrete mixture may be 
properly handled in the manufacture of rein¬ 
forced concfete pipe by hand, coarse aggregate 
(pebbles or broken stone) should not exceed 
^J-in. in greatest dimension for pipe with shells 
4*4 ins. and less in thickness. Where shell 
thickness is greater than 4^4 ins., coarse aggre¬ 
gate up to 1*4. ins. may be used, but owing to the 
position of reinforcement and the method by 
which some types of joints are formed, a maxi¬ 
mum of 1 in. for coarse aggregate will be found 
preferable. 

In the manufacture of poured reinforced con¬ 
crete pipe it is necessary that a batch of grout be 
poured into the mold in advance of the concrete. 
This is to coat the reinforcement with grout to 
prevent the reinforcement robbing the concrete 
of its full quota of cement and water. If grout 
is not poured before concrete it will be found that 
the bottom portion of the pipe is likely to be pit¬ 
ted and of very coarse texture. In some cases 
it will be found that the bottom portion of the 
pipe is so deficient in mortar content that the con¬ 
crete is of very poor quality. The quantity of 
grout to be used will depend on the thickness of 
pipe wall, the diameter and length of the pipe. 

* Where pipe are cast bell down this process will 
ensure a good strong bell. 

In filling forms the concrete should be de¬ 
posited in layers around the entire section be¬ 
tween inner and outer forms, and be well spaded 
while placing to insure thorough bond with rein¬ 
forcing metal, and also to insure that the con- 


REINFORCED PIPE 


341 


crete will be settled to maximum density, and 
that coarse particles will be forced back from 
mold faces, thus increasing the density, hence 
watertightness of the pipe. 

Climatic conditions, as well as the season of 
the year, make it impossible to arbitrarily fix the 
length of time which forms should be left in 
place on hand-made concrete pipe. The same 
conditions make it impossible to state how long 
such pipe shall be allowed to harden, or age, 
before they may be placed in the trench. The 
same general precautions to prevent drying out 
of the concrete, that have previously been men¬ 
tioned as necessary to the proper hardening of 
all concrete products, apply equally to hand- 
• made concrete pipe. If they are hardened by 
the water process, they should be kept moist for 
a period of at least 7 days after forms have been 
removed. Proper hardening is very important 
to securing a high-grade product, and has great 
influence on the ultimate success of or dissatis¬ 
faction with the pipe. 

All tests which have been made upon prop¬ 
erly manufactured concrete sewer pipe prove 
that they have a strength far in excess of other 
kinds of sewer pipe, and in excess of any re¬ 
quirements which must be met in actual use. 
The durability and strength of pipe being associ¬ 
ated with their density, the percentage of absorp¬ 
tion of water by the pipe walls must be consid¬ 
ered. The way in which the pipe are laid in the 
trench has a great deal to do with the distribution 
of the pressure on the pipe from the under side 
and also on the alignment of the pipe. There¬ 
fore, the kind of bed on which they rest should 
be carefully specified. Unless the back fill is 
properly consolidated by tamping around the 
sides of the pipe in the trench, excessive loads 
will rest on them which may easily reach the 


342 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


crushing strength of the pipe for the larger sizes. 
It is, therefore, very essential when writing spe¬ 
cifications to carefully specify how the back fill 
shall be made and size of material of which it is 
made up to about 2 ft. above the top of the pipe. 
Where the trench has a flat bottom and space ex¬ 
ists under the shoulders of the pipe care must 
be taken to tamp earth or sand in the space. In 
some cases a lean concrete mixture is used and 
this practice is common in European countries. 
Pipe of all sizes should be properly bedded if 
they are to sustain the loads imposed by the back¬ 
fill and loads which may come upon the back¬ 
filled trench as in the case of steam rollers, trac¬ 
tors and other heavy vehicles. 


CHAPTER XL. 


CONCRETE PRESSURE PIPE. 

The development of concrete pipe for water 
conduits has been gradual but rapid. First used 
to carry water where the flow was due to gravity 
the art of manufacture has now advanced to the 
point where water lines under pressure are in suc¬ 
cessful use. Sewer pipe were originally made in 
lengths of 3 ft., when reinforced, and later in 
longer sections. The first concrete pressure pipe 
were made in 4-ft. lengths and later in lengths of 
6 and 8 ft. and even longer where conditions 
justified. 

Factors of Design. 

Concrete pressure pipe must be designed to 
provide for resisting internal hydraulic pressure 
and external load pressure caused by earth or 
other loads. Reinforcement must be of such a 
type and so placed as to render easy the placement 
of concrete in the forms and to permit thorough 
consolidation by tamping, puddling or slicing. 
Ordinarily the wall thickness of such pipe is cal¬ 
culated to be one-tenth of the internal diameter of 
the pipe although in some cases the designing 
engineer may desire to obtain thicker walls. The 
reinforcement required may demand that the wall 
thickness be such as will permit concrete to flow 
around the reinforcement and also to provide an 
ample thickness of concrete between the reinforce¬ 
ment and the inner and outer walls of the pipe. 
This distance was set at 2 ins. on the pipe made 
for the Winnipeg aqueduct. 

Expansion joints are necessary for pressure 
pipe if the water flowing through the pipe will 
vary in temperature to such an extent as to cause 
appreciable contraction and expansion in the pipe. 
Some pipe lines in California have given good 



344 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

service without expansion joints but practice has 
proved that in most projects expansion joints are 
necessary. They should be provided at every 
joint. There are a number of patented expansion 
joints in use today which are controlled by the 
companies making the pipe. As a large capital 
investment is required for the successful manu¬ 
facture of concrete pressure pipe on projects re¬ 
quiring either large pipe or a large quantity of 
smaller pipe it is not advisable for the inexpe¬ 
rienced person to rush into this branch of the 
concrete industry. This chapter is written to in¬ 
spire all manufacturers of concrete products with 
the idea of advancement and to point out the 
wonderful development in the concrete pipe in¬ 
dustry. This progress can be duplicated to some 
extent in other products by the exercise of in¬ 
genuity. 

Pressure Pipe Manufacture. 

Concrete pressure pipe should be made in steel 
molds properly designed for the purpose. Only 
the best aggregate should be used and it should be 
well graded as to proportion of fine and coarse 
particles. Concrete should be machine mixed 
with sufficient water to give the plastic consistency 
necessary for proper handling of the concrete. 
Curing should be controlled so that the hydration 
of concrete work. It may be well to say that in 
at least 96 hours. The use of steam'allows per¬ 
fect control on the part of the pipe maker. There 
are many pieces of accessory equipment required 
in the manufacture and handling of concrete pres¬ 
sure pipe which will not be detailed in this short 
chapter. A book as large as this entire publica¬ 
tion would be required to treat the subject in the 
detail which would give the information required 
by one not thoroughly experienced in this branch 
of the cement'will be continuous for a period of 
the manufacture of concrete pressure pipe not 


PRESSURE PIPE 345 

only must care be used in the design but incessant 
care must be exercised in the manufacture of 
this pipe during all stages of the work. 

Lock Joint Pressure Pipe. 

I he Lock Joint Pipe Co. is one of the pioneers 
in the manufacture of concrete pipe and has in¬ 
stalled many pressure pipe lines that have given 
excellent service comparable with the service ot 
more expensive construction. W. H. Nalder, 







Copper fMpansro/ 
fb/nt //use two races- 


— rtr/tco/ Cot/HCre tV/rx&np. 


d£ta/l of l/o/ nr 
hcad nor ro fxcffq ren rerr 


H£L/CAL-W/R£ R£/nFORC£M£tfT 


FnonpoAsrHes* fanfFc&rrc 




Tnonou/or Hen* fonffodncflb 049 
r*\ C'M*. Stop, Leapt* 644,Wt /47lb 


—mr 


Copper ftponj/onStnp As/af these twa Foces 

FABRIC R£/nFORC£M£nT 

DFTA/LS OFSTAHDARD RR£SSUR£ P/P£ 
HMDS MOR£ THAFf T£H f££T 


.//'. ** 

corps° £xra ns/on str/p 

Ob96 S&J dope SRjcR.teyM d&.Lopfi' 


S£Cr/On WTHOVT SPIGOT 

STAHOARD P/P£ UH/TS. 


seu. ana sp/eor without g,eh 

ne/tas nor to exceeo ren rear 


' Copper fxftoneton Jtrrp 
ir/h 46Cope Crarp Bar 

BAR R£/nrORC£Ff£/rr 


Details of Some of the Lock-Joints as Used by 
Lock Joint Pipe Co. 

then engineer on the staff of the U. S. Reclama¬ 
tion Service, comments on lock-joint pipe as fol¬ 
lows : 

The basic and distinctive features of lock-joint 
pipe that have so far been adopted and used by 
the Reclamation Service are in the details; the 
method of reinforcing and the means of render¬ 
ing flexible and water-tight the joints between the 
pipe units. The basic “lock-joint” patent pro¬ 
vides fabric mesh reinforcement extending out of 
both the spigot and bell ends in such a way that 















































346 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

when pipe units are placed together the reinforce¬ 
ment from the spigot end will overlap that from 
the bell end in an internal recess in the shell of 
the pipe so that when this recess is filled with 
cement grout a water-tight locked joint is formed 
and continuity of the reinforcement accomplished. 
The bell, the spigot and the joint recess are en¬ 
tirely within the regular shell of the pipe so that 
the finished pipe line presents continuous and 
smooth inside and outside cylindrical surfaces. 
When water-tightness is of prime importance and 
for pipe under considerable hydrostatic pressure, 
the projecting reinforcing fabric on the spigot end 



Special Sections of Reinforced Concrete Pressure Pipe. 
A—Low Pressure Valve. B—Valve or Manhole Sec¬ 
tion. C—Screw or Flanged Connection. 


is omitted and there is substituted therefor a thin 
copper cylinder with a circumferential, expansible 
head so placed that it will provide a joint that will 
permit expansion and contraction in the pipe due 
to changes in temperature or slight settlement in 
the foundation and at the same time remain water¬ 
tight. Pipes having these two different types of 
joints are generally designated as “culvert” pipe 
when not provided with the copper expansion 
strip and as “copper joint” or “pressure” pipe 
when the copper is provided. The general rule 
adopted is to use “culvert” pipe for installations 
where the hydrostatic head on the center is 10 ft. 
or less, and “copper-joint” pipe whenever this 
head exceeds 10 ft. 










PRESSURE PIPE 


347 


The pipe is reinforced for hydrostatic pressure 
calculated on the basis of a working stress in the 
steel of 12,000 lbs. per sq. in. for heads up to 
100 ft., and varying uniformly from this unit 
stress at 100-ft. head to 8000 lbs. per sq. in. for 
a maximum of 200 -ft. head. For sizes up to 
54 -in. diam. the reinforcement consists of a single 
line placed near the inside surface of the shell. 
For pipe of 60 -in. diam. and larger a double line 
of reinforcement is used. Three general types of 
reinforcement have been adopted. For low hydro¬ 
static. heads and for culvert pipe a single layer of 
triangular mesh reinforcement fabric is used. For 
higher heads either a mesh reinforcement fabric, 
supplemented by wire wound spirally around it, or 
a cage built up of separate longitudinal and cir¬ 
cumferential rods is used. 

A reinforced concrete pipe line should not have 
a leakage exceeding 225 gals, per inch of diam¬ 
eter per mile per day; that the pipes should be 
made generally in lengths of 12 ft.; that the ce¬ 
ment content in the pipe should not be less than 
one-quarter of the total amount of sand and stone: 
that the steel reinforcement should not be stressed 
at more than 12,000 lbs. per sq. in. without con¬ 
sidering the concrete on joints should be capable 
of expansion and contraction and be able to take 
care of a reasonable amount of settlement while 
the pipe is under pressure and without leakage. 
Material of which the joints are made should be 
of lead or other equally permanent and flexible 
material. The surface at the ends of the pipes 
coming in contact with the lead should be of metal 
and it is very desirable that the pipe should be so 
designed and built that it can be backfilled and 
allowed to settle before the joints are made in 
order not to throw undue strains on finished 
joints. 


CHAPTER XLI. 


PIPE MANUFACTURING METHODS. 

The larger sizes of concrete pipe have to be 
made under a great many different working con¬ 
ditions. In the smaller sizes, especially with ma¬ 
chine-made pipe, it is a factory product, manu¬ 
factured at one central point where the conditions 



Incline and Portable Runway Used in Filling Concrete 

Pipe Molds. 


can be rigidly controlled. This is not true of the 
large sizes, which must be manufactured close to 
the site where they are to be used and where the 
conditions of manufacture will be largely con¬ 
trolled by the location, availability of materials, 
and the amount of pipe to be manufactured. 

This latter feature is something which must be 
taken into careful consideration. Obviously it 
will be economically possible to install better 
working equipment where the amount of pipe is 
large than where it is small. In some cases the 
amount might be so small that the installation of 













MANUFACTURING PIPE 349 

any but the crudest means of manufacture would 
so overload the cost as to be prohibitive. On the 
other hand, where a large amount of pipe can be 


View of Pipe Manufacturing Yard with Long Temporary 

Fixed Runway. 


Concrete Mixer with Extended Elevator Raised on Crib¬ 
bing to Use with Temporary Fixed Runway. 


made at one point, the plant cost will equalize 
itself over a larger number of feet of pipe and 
will in the end prove economical. 

The equipment required for a poured pipe 
project may range from a few thousand dollars 

















350 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


in cost to more than a hundred thousand dollars 
or double this amount for large projects. Molds 
for poured pipe must be made so as to handle 
easily, hold their shape and be tight so no grout 
will be lost through poor joints in the molds. 

Where the magnitude of the work does not 
justify the use of power equipment for transport¬ 
ing concrete from mixer to molds, wheelbarrows 
are often used to good effect. 

In the early days of development of the con- 



Power Derrick on 1-Ft. Gage Railway Transporting Con¬ 
crete in 1-Yd. Buckets to Pipe Molds. 


crete pipe industry it was customary to place the 
mixer on the ground and to wheel the concrete in 
wheelbarrows to each mold and there to use 
scoops to take the concrete from the wheelbar¬ 
rows and place it in the molds. This method in¬ 
volved some waste of concrete. These early molds 
were 3 ft. in height. It .was soon found that 
longer sections of pipe could be handled and molds 
were increased from 3 ft. to 4 and 6 ft. and even 
up to 20 ft. in height. It was therefore necessary 
to devise other means of handling concrete on 
such jobs. 













MANUFACTURING PIPE 351 

Runways. 

On molds standing 4 ft. high two types of run¬ 
ways were developed, one a portable runway 
about 16 ft. long, equipped with a pair of wheels 
at one end and resting on posts at the other end. 
When it was desired to move the runway along 
the line of molds, the post end was raised by two 
workmen and the section wheeled a distance of 



Power Derrick Handling Cages of Triangle Mesh Rein¬ 
forcement on Pipe Job. 


16 ft. To reach the level of the platform an in¬ 
clined runway section was attached. This portable 
runway and incline is shown in one of the accom¬ 
panying illustrations. 

On the work where the photograph was taken 
the molds were equipped with a steel filling top 
which was level with the inside mold casing and 
flush with its top edge. A short plank extended 
from the portable runway to the filling top and 
over the plank wheelbarrows were run and 
dumped on the filling top. Laborers with water¬ 
proof boots worked the concrete into the mold and 












352 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


tamped it with flattened hoes on long handles and 
thereby obtained smooth surfaces. 

The portable runway was found economical on 
jobs requiring 1000 cu. yds. of concrete or .less. 
For work of more than 1000 cu. yds. a different 
method of operation was developed. This method 
required that the mixer be elevated on crib work 
to a point 4 ft. above the ground level. In front 



Pipe Making Department Where a Power Tamper Ma 

chine Is Used. 


of the mixer a working platform some 16 ft. 
square was constructed and leading from this was 
a runway, portable in design but fixed in its loca¬ 
tion on each project. See accompanying illustra¬ 
tion. The runway extended from the working 
platform in front of the mixer for the full length 
of the pipe molds which were arranged on each 
side of the runway in two parallel rows. 

An inclined runway extended from the ground 
level to the working platform for the convenience 
of workmen at the beginning and end of the work 



MANUFACTURING PIPE 


353 


periods. In another view, a Lakewood concrete 
mixer is shown which had its elevator frame ex¬ 
tended so the charging skip could be loaded at the 
ground level. On this particular job the cement 
house is immediately back of the mixer and adja¬ 
cent to a railroad spur track. Aggregate was 



Stripping Steel Mold from Machine Made Pipe in a 

Steam Curing Room. 


piled on each side of the cement house and was 
conveyed to the mixer loading skip in wheel¬ 
barrows. Short planks were used on this runway 





354 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


to reach the molds. Runways were wide enough 
for a filled barrow and an empty barrow to pass. 

Industrial Railway. 

Where large quantities of pipe were required 
and the quantity of concrete justified the expense, 
a broad-gage railway has been found to be eco¬ 
nomical. Such a railway is shown in one of the 



Spraying Concrete Pipe in Storage Yard. Spraying Is 

Continuous. 


illustrations. On this railway a double arm 
traveling derrick may be seen. From one arm a 
bucket of concrete is suspended and from the 
other a device used in handling steel mold casings. 
Two 1 -yd. concrete buckets could be and were 
handled at a time on this project. Here two of 
these derricks were used. One was utilized for 
filling molds while the other was at work taking 
down and assembling molds, handling cages of 
reinforcement, top rings and other incidental 
work. 

Most of these views were taken on pipe projects 
where "Lock Joint’’ pipe were being made by the 
Lock Joint Pipe Co., or its subsidiaries. This 
group of companies has performed some note- 










MANUFACTURING PIPE 355 

worthy feats in pipe construction and in the 
course of the work have developed a number of 
unique and useful devices. The concrete bucket 
is but one of many devices and is patented. 

Stiff-leg Power Derricks. 

On other projects not justifying the construc¬ 
tion of a broad-gage railway, stiff-leg power der¬ 
ricks have been used to good advantage. In such 
instances the molds are arranged in one, two or 
three semi-circular rows in front of the derrick 



A Group of Standard and Special Sections of Concrete 

Sewer Pipe. 


and the mixer; stock piles, etc., are located in the 
remaining part of the circle on each side of the 
derrick. 

These instances of actual methods of filling 
pipe molds do not exhaust the possibilities in this 
part of pipe manufacture. They prove that no 
one set plan is workable or advisable under all 
conditions. Anyone undertaking the manufacture 
of high grade culvert pipe, sewer pipe and pres¬ 
sure pipe should realize that there are many 





356 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


details of pipe manufacture which must be care¬ 
fully developed from study and practice. Mixing, 
transporting, placing and tamping concrete com¬ 
prises a large part of concrete pipe work. Thought 
spent in eliminating lost motion and in saving 
materials, energy and time will result in larger 
profits. There are many other details of impor¬ 
tance which should be carefully studied before a 
pipe plant either fixed or temporary is established. 

Handling Molds and Pipe. 

On small jobs molds and pipe of the smaller 
sizes are handled without the aid of power equip- 


An Attractive Office of a Concrete Pipe Company Built of 

Concrete Products. 



ment. On large jobs and where heavy pipe are 
made power equipment is necessary. Either stiff- 
leg derricks or traveling derricks are economical 
in operation. The stiff-leg derrick is better adapted 
to work which does not require many molds or a 
large casting yard. Where the working space 
runs to acreage a traveling derrick is the best ma¬ 
chine to use for handling cages of reinforcement, 
molds, concrete, and for lifting the pipe after it 









MANUFACTURING PIPE 


357 


has hardened. On sewer pipe work it is custom¬ 
ary to permit the pipe to remain on the bases on 
•which it is made for 3 days even when steam is 
used for curing. On pressure pipe work it is cus¬ 
tomary to use four bases to each set of casings 
so each pipe can remain undisturbed on its cast 
iron base for 4 days. This is done to allow the 
concrete to attain its greatest strength in the time 
allotted so no cracks will develop when handling 
the pipe. 

On soft ground and with pressure pipe it is 
advisable to deposit the pipe on heavy timber 
skids. This facilitates handling with no danger 
of injuring the pipe. On heavy pipe work 
mechanical equipment must be used if the work is 
to be done at the least expense. 

Loading pipe onto cars or truck is best accom¬ 
plished by the use of a stiff-leg derrick or a loco¬ 
motive crane of sufficient power. Here again 
mechanical power is less expensive than human 
labor. 


CHAPTER XLII. 


TESTING CONCRETE PIPE. 

Every reputable manufacturer desires that his 
product be the best that can be produced under 
the specifications by which he is working. This 
should be particularly true as far as the producer 
of concrete products is concerned. Every failure 
of a piece of concrete, whether it be a lowly con¬ 
crete brick or a massive viaduct, is seized upon 
and greatly magnified by those who would have 
the uninitiated believe that all concrete work in¬ 
volves undue risks, especially precast work. 

Therefore it is advisable that some means 
should be employed by every manufacturer to see 
that his concrete products meet all requirements 
of the specifications under which they are made. 
There is a way to accurately determine this— 
periodic tests on average samples. 

Compression Test. 

Various ways have been devised for the testing 
of concrete pipe, many of them accurate and effi¬ 
cient for laboratory work. However, the problem 
confronting the manufacturer is quite different 
from the laborious and painstaking exactness re¬ 
quired by the laboratory. The North Carolina 
Highway Commission has worked out a method 
that is at once practical, efficient and economical 
for the manufacturer, by utilizing a testing ap¬ 
paratus which was originally intended for other 
purposes. 

This apparatus is known as a Loadometer 1 and 
was sold primarily for use in ascertaining the 
weight of automobile trucks to prevent overload¬ 
ing on highways and bridges. The accompanying 
illustration shows the very simple method of test- 


1 Manufactured by Black & Decker Co., Baltimore, Md. 



TESTING PIPE 


359 

ing pipe with this apparatus. All that is required 
is a framework of 12 by 12-in. timbers, securely 
bolted to a concrete floor, a movable cross-block, 
which rests on top of the pipe, and a Loadometer. 



Pipe Testing Apparatus, Including a Loadometer as Used 
by Cement Products Co., Wilmington, N. C. 

The uprights are bolted to the stringers which are 
imbedded in the concrete. On each of the up¬ 
right posts a steel pipe is aligned on the inside 
face, thus providing two guides on which the ends 
of the horizontal beam through which pressure is 







360 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


applied to ride. The pipe to be tested rests on 
1 -in. strips attached to a piece of 12 by 12-in. 
timber which is also imbedded in the concrete slab. 
This timber runs from frame to frame in line 
with the length of the concrete pipe. The inner 
corner of each of the two 1-in. strips is beveled 
slightly. An iron plate is placed on top of the 
Loadometer and the upright timber is set in place 
and pressure is applied. This upright member 
varies in length for pipe of different diameters. 
The joint of pipe to be tested is placed on the 
framework, as shown in the illustration, the cross- 
block placed on top of it, and the Loadometer on 
the cross-block. A piece of stout timber is then 
placed between the Loadometer and the top mem¬ 
ber of the framework. Pressure is then applied 
with the lever on the Loadometer provided for 
that purpose. The number of pounds’ pressure is 
registered on the gage. If pipe is being manufac¬ 
tured to meet specifications calling for 1000 -D and 
the size being tested is 24 ins. in diameter and 
2 y 2 ft. long, it is readily seen that the gage must 
register at least 5000 lbs. before any signs of an 
initial fracture occur. 

This method of testing pipe is quick, accurate 
and economical, and the pipe manufacturer will 
find it very helpful in enabling him to keep his 
production up to the required standard. 

Hydraulic Test. 

When the water tightness of pipe is to be ascer¬ 
tained it is necessary to subject individual pipe 
to hydraulic pressure. Bulkheads of several types, 
such as expanding diaphragms, or fixed bulkheads 
equipped with expansible gaskets, have been used. 
When the heads are tight, water is let into the 
pipe until the space between the heads is filled. 
This is accomplished by having an overflow pipe 
at or near the top of the bulkhead, the inner end 


TESTING PIPE 


361 

of the pipe being equipped with an elbow and 
section of pipe reaching to the top of the pipe. 
This is to prevent trapping air in the pipe. The 
overflow pipe being closed, additional water is 
forced into the pipe by means of an hydraulic 
hand pump if the available pressure on the water 
is not sufficient. The pump is operated until the 
pressure gage dial reading reaches the point re- 



Concrete Pipe Subjected to Hydraulic Pressure Tight at 

115 Lbs. 

quired bv the specifications or until the pipe leaks 
badly or bursts. 

A testing cylinder has been used to good effect 
in testing concrete irrigation pipe and sewer pipe. 
The cylinder fits with but little clearance inside 
the pipe and gaskets close the small space at each 
end of the cylinder. The use of this device pre¬ 
vents waste of water. 

In testing completed pressure pipe lines the best 
practice is to close the ends of the pipe line and 








362 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

any other openihgs that may be provided in ac¬ 
cordance with the design of the line. Water 
should be permitted to stand in the pipe line for 
3 days and precautions must be taken to remove 
all air from the pipe line. Air entrapped in the 
water will rise to the top of the pipe line and can 
be removed by air relief valves, if any, and by 
allowing the water to flow through the pipe at a 
slow rate. It will be necessary to have the over¬ 
flow connection made to take water from the top 
of the pipe. 

When sufficient time has elapsed to see that the 
line is free from air the test can be started. To 
produce the pressure the simplest and surest 
method is to erect a tower of the proper height, 
to build a platform on the tower, to set thereon 
a barrel or a tank which must be connected with 
the pipe line by a pipe. The barrel or tank is 
filled with water until a marked level has been 
reached and then observations are taken at regu¬ 
lar intervals to determine how much water is lost 
by leakage. As tests of this kind are conducted 
for 24 hours it is necessary to keep the tank filled 
with water to the marked line and to record the 
quantity of water required in 24 hours to main¬ 
tain this level. The quantity in gallons will be the 
leakage from the pipe line for its entire length 
in 24 hours. In a test conducted in substantially 
this manner on the reinforced pressure pipe sec¬ 
tion of the Winnipeg aqueduct the leakage in 24 
hours on a 66-in. pipe 10 miles long was less than 
one-third the leakage allowed, which leakage was 
based on cast iron pipe line practice. 

In general work but two tests are required for 
pressure pipe or sewers, namely, compression tests 
to determine the load bearing power of the pipe 
'and hydraulic tests to determine the resistance to 
bursting pressure and to ascertain the water tight¬ 
ness of the completed line. 


CHAPTER XLIII. 


CONCRETE PIPE ELECTRICAL 
CONDUITS. 

In most cities over 50,000 population it has 
been found advisable to install transmission dis¬ 
tribution systems for electric light and power and 
telephone systems in underground conduits. Such 
practice has been in vogue for a period of over 
* 40 years and although the initial cost of this type 
of construction is greater than for overhead con¬ 
struction, the final results prove it to be a measure 
of economy because of the greatly reduced cost 



Specials for Repair Work on Conduit Lines, Half Sections, 

Bends and Bells 

of maintenance of such a system. Overhead lines 
incur danger to life, they are unsightly and sub¬ 
ject to frequent interruptions of service during 
severe storms. 

The principal kind of conduits or ducts used at 
present are the concrete or stone conduit, fibre 
pipe and the multiple and single form of vitrified 
clay duct. All of these are installed in the same 
general manner. 

Single ducts are ordinarily installed in clusters 





364 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

of 4, 6, 9 or 12 ins. with joints staggered and duct 
lines separated by 1 in. of cement mortar and the 
group of ducts entirely surrounded by concrete 
with a minimum thickness of 3 ins. 

Concrete ducts or “stone conduits” as they are 
referred to commercially are made in lengths of 
3 ft. with an internal diameter of 3^2 ins. and a 
shell thickness of in* Duct lines are usually 
laid at a sufficient depth to provide a cover of 


Manufacturing Concrete Conduit by Power Machine 












PIPE CONDUITS 365 

254 ft. over the top of the upper 3-in. layer of 
concrete. 

An experienced workman with one helper can 
lay about 2000 duct ft. in a prepared trench in 
an 8-hr. day. After conduits are laid the lines are 
rodded and a steel mandrel, y or y in. smaller 
in diameter than the inside diameter of the duct, 
is drawn through each line to insure that there 
are no obstructions and no offsets at the joints 
which will prevent or even make more difficult 
the drawing of the cables through the duct lines. 

Essential Qualities of Duct Material 

A primary essential of any duct line is that it 
be designed and constructed in such a manner so 
as to offer the least possible frictional resistance 
to the passage of lead covered cable. This re¬ 
quires an extremely smooth interior surface of 
the conduit and no appreciable offsets at the joints 
which would tend to shave off the lead covering 
as cable is pulled through. 

Another essential characteristic that any con¬ 
duit must have is that of effectively resisting the 
passage of electric arcs. Although the duct mate¬ 
rial cannot prevent a burnout in a cable, it should 
prevent the communication of this burnout to 
cables in adjoining lines and after extended ob¬ 
servation and experience numerous electrical en¬ 
gineers believe that concrete meets this require¬ 
ment better than any other duct material. It also 
successfully resists the action of heat caused by 
a cable short circuit. 

Comparison of Various Materials 

In this connection the report of the committee 
on underground construction of the National 
Electric Light Association in the 1911 proceed¬ 
ings contains the following statement: 

Conduit built with fibre or with concrete duct material 


366 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


and having tight joints resists the action of the heat of 
a cable short-circuit, either high tension or low tension, 
much better than conduits built of tile and with butted 
joints. 

As to the ability of concrete in comparison with 
other duct materials to resist passage of arcs the 
same committee in the 1920 Proceedings of N. E. 
L. A. stated as follows: 

Concrete ducts being round, are laid with a minimum 
of 1 in. of concrete between adjacent ducts, with 
duct walls. This gives over 2 ins. of concrete between 
cables in adjacent ducts and the committee has been 
unable to find any record of a burnout, of either high 
or low tension cables in concrete duct, communicating 
through the conduit to the cable in an adjacent duct. 

Fibre ducts have inherently no great resistance to arcs, 
but their principal function is to serve as a mold for 
the concrete and the protection against troubles of this 
kind is afforded solely by the concrete between the ducts. 
(Minimum thickness of concrete between fibre ducts is 
ordinarily \ l / 2 ins.) 

Vitrified tile readily melts where exposed to arcs and 
the trouble is particularly disastrous in the case of low 
tension cables which are not quickly disconnected in 
case of trouble. Numerous cases are on record where 
burnouts of low tension cables carried in vitrified tile 
conduits have melted the duct materials so that the 
molten tile and lead and copper have solidified into one 
solid mass and none of the cables in the conduit could 
be withdrawn. Such cases of trouble cause serious de¬ 
lays in the restoring of service, because they necessitate 
the digging up of the conduit, the removal of solidified 
tile, lead and copper, the removal of all the cable in the 
conduit, and the replacing of the damaged portion of the 
conduit, and later the replacing of all the cables. 

In 1922 a questionnaire was sent out by the 
Underground Construction Committee of N. E. 
L. A. to a large number of electric light and power 
companies regarding the use of cement coverings 
for fireproofing cables in manholes. The use of 
such fireproofing material was found from the re¬ 
plies to be the common practice of a great many 
concerns and the number of cases where corrosion 


PIPE CONDUITS 


367 


of lead under cement fireproofing has occurred is 
very small. 

Its occurrence is, however, troublesome, as the 
exact cause of such corrosion cannot be exactly 
determined. It is apparent in some cases that the 
trouble is cathodic corrosion, due to the cable 
sheath being strongly negative to the adjacent 
electric rails during a portion of the day. 

The following paragraphs relative to cathodic 
corrosion are quoted from the 1922 report of the 
before mentioned committee: 

If the cable sheaths are several volts negative to the 
surrounding rails or pipe during a portion of the time 
and at about the same potential as the rails during sev¬ 
eral hours, as, for example, during the light load period 
in the early morning hours, then the cement will be de¬ 
composed by the action of the stray currents when the 
lead sheath is several volts negative and the alkaline 
products of this decomposition will attack the lead when 
the current ceases to flow. If the trouble is due to this 
cause, the difficulty can sometimes be removed by alter¬ 
ing the conditions so that the cable sheaths will not be 
so strongly negative during the heavy load period on the 
adjacent electric railways. 

A number of companies have used a large amount of 
cement-lined iron pipe for conduits in the earlier days 
and more recently large quantities of concrete pipe have 
been used by some companies. The fact that these com¬ 
panies are not having trouble due to the lead sheath 
being in contact with the concrete, indicates that the 
trouble is not due primarily to the action of cement or 
concrete on lead, but that it is due to some local condi¬ 
tions such as cathodic corrosion herein described. 

Advantages of Using Concrete Conduit 

Although the before mentioned advantages ob¬ 
tained by using concrete duct in preference to 
other materials are important, concrete has other 
inherent qualities which prove its superiority over 
other materials when used for this purpose. 

As before stated, conduit lines are usually 
placed only 2y 2 ft. below the surface of the street 
and are therefore subject to impact caused by 


368 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


passing vehicles. Electrical engineers state that 
concrete conduits withstand this impact far better 
than other materials. 

At this depth (2 ft. 6 ins.) conduits are also 
subject to action of frost and it is a well-known 
fact that concrete conduits successfully resist such 
action at all times. 

Concrete conduits are symmetrical throughout, 
straight and true from end to end, smooth and 
regular on the inside, free from blisters or other 
imperfections, and offer but little frictional re¬ 
sistance to the drawing of a cable through the 
bore. 

Little variation in the concentricity of inner 
and outer circumference is found in concrete 
conduits properly fabricated and the ends are per¬ 
pendicular to the barrel, which features facilitate 
the construction of even and smooth joints quick¬ 
ly and easily, such joints being essential to good 
conduit construction. 

Although the first cost per duct foot of the vari¬ 
ous types of duct materials has been approxi¬ 
mately the same for a number of years, expe¬ 
rience has shown that the maintenance cost of a 
system using concrete is far less than that of the 
systems using other materials, the reason for this 
being that concrete conduit is less liable to dam¬ 
age from shock or vibration caused by passing 
vehicles, more resistant to frost action and not 
appreciably affected by cable burnouts. 

Extensive Use of Concrete Conduit 

In many cities throughout the country concrete 
conduits have been used by electric light and 
power companies for a number of years and the 
advantages gained by using it are brought out by 
the fact that the number of duct feet installed 
each year is rapidly increasing. 

In one plant the concrete used is of the 


PIPE CONDUITS 


369 


so-called semi-dry consistency mixed 1 part of 
Portland cement to 3 parts of No. 2 torpedo sand 
or limestone screenings. The conduits are cured 
for a period of not less than 8 weeks after re¬ 
moval from the molds, being kept wet by sprin¬ 
kling the first 6 weeks and then allowed to dry 
in the air for 2 weeks before being used. 

Although the capacity of this plant is about 
3000 duct feet per day or about 900,000 ft. per 





LMAVA+ili 


JAHtit 


,::s v i3-v 


mm 




Concrete Conduit on Half Pallets Undergoing Prelim¬ 
inary Hardening for 24 Hours After Which Pallets 
Are Removed and Conduit Are Placed on End 

year, it was unable to supply the demand in 1923 
and the company was compelled to resort to the 
use of fibre duct. To overcome this situation a 
contract has recently been awarded to others for 
the manufacture of 3,000,000 ft. and a plant for 
this purpose is now being erected in Chicago. 




CHAPTER XLIV. 


CONCRETE LIGHT STANDARDS. 



Various types of concrete posts are made for 
use as lighting standards. In general they usually 
possess artistic qualities and are the subject of 
special design involving the construction of some 
particular form or type of mold. In mixing and 
placing the concrete also various special mate- 

ials and methods are 
used with a view to 
making it possible to 
obtain an attractive sur¬ 
face on the finished 
post. This usually is 
obtained by using white 
Portland cement, white 
marble or feldspar 
chips, micaspar, crushed 
granite and various 
other kinds of selected 
aggregates instead of 
sand and broken stone, 
and after the posts have 
hardened so that molds 
may be removed, the 
surface is treated by an 
acid wash to remove the 
surface film of cement 
and thus expose the 
beauty of the selected 
a gg re g ates * Several 
types of concrete lamp- 
posts are shown in ac¬ 
companying i 11 u s t ra¬ 
tions. 

Concrete Electric Light The concrete light 
standard. standards shown in the 


















LIGHT STANDARDS 


371 


accompanying illustrations are special designs but 
indicate that simplicity in design is desirable. A 



small number of companies are manufacturing 
concrete light standards and each company has its 
own designs and special methods of manufacture. 








372 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


Most of the companies use the poured process 

with some variations such 



Concrete Light Standards 
as Used in Private 
Grounds. 


as a system of jigging or 
vibrating to consolidate 
the concrete. A patented 
system known as the cen¬ 
trifugal process using steel 
or cast iron molds is in 
successful operation. The 
mold is placed in a ma¬ 
chine which revolves at a 
high speed. Concrete of 
the requisite mixture, con¬ 
sistency and quantity is 
placed in the mold and the 
machine is revolved. Speed 
is gradually built up to the 
maximum at which the 
centrifugal action is main¬ 
tained until the concrete is 
thoroughly consolidated. 
Beautiful, durable stand¬ 
ards are made by both the 
poured and centrifugal 
systems, which are in suc¬ 
cessful operation. 

Note: This type of light 

standard can be made either 
in a vertical mold, top end 
down, or in a horizontal mold 
consisting of four sides and 
two ends. One side is left off 
until the mold is completely 
filled with the correct amount 
of concrete. The side forming 
the top of the mold, when the 
mold is in a horizontal posi¬ 
tion, is then set in place and 
forced down by means of 
bolts so the panel is formed. 
The concrete displaced fills 
the corners of the mold. The 
corners of the standard should 
be beveled. This is effected 
by placing a strip of wood 
having a triangular section in 
the corners of the mold. 










373 


LIGHT STANDARDS 



Where horizontal molds are used a special 
facing material can be used, backed up with ordi¬ 
nary concrete in which less expensive aggregate is 
used. In the poured process where the molds are 
held or suspended vertically the entire charge of 
concrete must be of the same mixture throughout. 

A concrete mixture which has been found satis¬ 
factory for light standards made by the Moose- 
heart Vocational Institute is composed of 1 part 


white portland cement, 
1 part each of No. 3,- 
No. 3and No. 4 
Crown Point mica spar 
and 1 y 2 part of crushed 
pink granite. 

All concrete light 
standards should be re¬ 
inforced and a compe¬ 
tent engineer should de¬ 
sign the system of re¬ 
inforcement. R e i n- 
forcement must be so 
placed that the concrete 
will flow completely 
around it. In the poles 
made by the centrifugal 
process a central open¬ 
ing is formed in the 
making. With the 
poured process it is nec¬ 
essary that a conduit be 
installed before the con¬ 
crete is poured into the 
mold. 

Before engaging in 
the manufacture of con¬ 
crete light standards it 
would be advisable to 
ascertain the type or 
types of standards 


Concrete Light Standard as 
Used on Boulevards. 






374 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 




iririL 


which would be acceptable, the quantity required 
the first year and the selling possibilities for the 
next few succeeding years. Plant equipment can 

then be intelligently estimated. 

If molds are to be made by a 
company which has not made such 
molds before it would be wise 
to have a single 
mold made and 
tried out in serv¬ 
ice. Improv e- 
ments will occur 
to the products 
manufacturer and 
can be given to the 
m o 1 d maker. 

Molds m u st be 
correctly designed 
so they will be 
rigid, tight a n d 
easily assembled 
and taken down. 

Light standards 
and transmission 
poles made by a 
patented centrifu¬ 
gal process are 
made at a Mil¬ 
waukee plant 
o w ned by the 
W e s t i n g house 
Electric & Manu¬ 
facturing Co. This 
department of the 
company’s work is 
operated u nder 
the management 
of the George B. 

Cutter Works. 


Single Bracket 
“Hollow - Spun” 
Type of Hollow 
Reinforced Con- 
crete Light 
Standard Used 
i n Milwaukee, 
Wis. 


Double Bracket 
Type of “Hol¬ 
low-Spun” Con- 
crete Light 
Standard Used 
i n Milwaukee 
County, Wis. 

















LIGHT STANDARDS 375 

The Cement Post Co., Miami Beach, Fla., 
manufactures ornamental concrete light standards 
for “white ways,” boulevards and parks. Cast 
iron molds are used for casting the standards 
which have proven successful competitors of the 


Ellis Tyoe of White Way Light Standard. 

well known cast iron standards. These concrete 
standards are termed “Ellis” standards, as they 
were designed by R. L. Ellis, manager for the 
company. Patents have been applied for to cover 
the novel feature of coring a cavity or recess in 
the base of the standard above the ground line to 
facilitate installing the electric cable leading to 
the lighting fixture. This is considered an im- 





376 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

portant feature by the electric service company. 
An iron door is provided for closing' the recess. 
One of the accompanying illustrations shows an 
Ellis standard on a Florida highway. The other 
illustration shows the lower part of the standard 
with the aforementioned recess. 

Those considering the manufacture of concrete 



Base of Ellis Standard. 


lighting standards should study the fittings for 
which the tops of the standards must be adapted. 
Standards should be graceful in outline and suffi¬ 
ciently strong without appearing cumbersome. 
Companies manufacturing street lighting fixtures 
will co-operate with makers of standards. 






CHAPTER XLV. 



CONCRETE FENCE POSTS. 

The concrete fence post, like concrete block, 
brick and tile, is a comparatively small unit 
manufactured for a particular purpose and thor¬ 
oughly hardened before put to its intended use. 
The same care must be exercised in the selection 
of materials, as well as in proportioning and 
mixing them, as in any other use of concrete. 

Slightly more water is necessary in mixing 
concrete fence posts than is used for block; for 


Filling Concrete Fence Post Molds. 














378 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


instance, owing to the different process of 
making. A quaky concrete is used for posts, 
compactness in filling the molds being secured 
either by agitating the concrete, as by stirring it, 
or by jarring the mold, usually provided for by 
some vibratory apparatus. 

Manufacture of the concrete fence post differs 
also from the process of block manufacture 
because of the peculiar duties demanded of a 
concrete post. The concrete block contains no 
reinforcement; that is, it contains no steel rods 
or wires to increase its strength, while the con¬ 
crete fence post must contain reinforcement for 
reasons which will be stated later. This also 
makes it necessary that a wetter mixture be used 
for fence posts so that it will be possible to make 
the concrete settle or flow to all parts of the mold 
and thus completely surround and everywhere be 
in contact with the reinforcing metal. 

By imagining a post constructed of rubber 
and considering how such a post would act if 
bent far over to one side, the theory of reinforce¬ 
ment and the necessity for it can readily be 
understood. A rubber post would naturally be 
stretched on one side and compressed on the 
other, so one side of the post is subjected to 
tension while the other is subjected to compres¬ 
sion. As concrete is strong in compression and 
weak in tension or resistance to strains tending 
to pull it apart, there must be enough steel re¬ 
inforcement embedded in the concrete to coun¬ 
teract the tendency of strains to pull the post 
apart. But it is not possible to tell from which 
of the four sides of a post the strains will come, 
so it is necessary to embed reinforcement at each 
corner, about 34 in. from the surface. A con¬ 
crete fence post may in a way be likened to a 
small concrete beam. Reinforced, it easily stands 
the strain from usage in a fence line. Steel rods 


FENCE POSTS 379 

or twisted wires are placed near the surface at 
all four corners of a square post, and in similar 
relative positions in other shapes of posts. A 
single rod through the center is not as effective 
as rods properly placed near the face in the 
respective corners, even though the rod at the 



Tamping and Finishing Concrete Fence Posts. 

center may contain a total amount of metal equal 
to the small rods. 

For ordinary line posts, reinforcement should 
consist of ^J-in. round steel rods, twisted 
square bars, or steel wires having an equal 
amount of metal in cross section. Considerable 
trouble has always followed the attempt to sub¬ 
stitute either plain or barbed wire for round or 




380 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


twisted rods, because wire usually comes in coils 
and is difficult to straighten and place in the 
molds so that it will always lie in the exact posi¬ 
tion desirable for best results. There are, how¬ 
ever, rods made of twisted wires prepared espe¬ 
cially for fence post reinforcement. These will 
lie straight in the molds, and if containing the 



Concrete Post Molds Filled and Racked for Curing. 


required amount of metal, are well suited for 
fence post reinforcing. If twisted wires are 
used, it should be borne in mind that a ^4-in. 
round rod contains an amount of metal equiva¬ 
lent to a 3 -ply twist of No. 9 wire. 

Nearly all failures of concrete post have dis- 





FENCE POSTS 


381 


closed the fact that failure was largely due to 
the fact that reinforcement became displaced 
during the filling of the mold with concrete. That 
is, all of the rods were forced either to one side 
of the post or to the center instead of held in 
proper fixed positions as near to the outside sur¬ 
face as possible. In order to make certain that 
reinforcement is properly placed, several plans 
have been devised. The most practical one seems 
to be to use spacers. These consist of pieces of 
wire twisted around the reinforcing rods to hold 



Concrete Posts Used in Vineyards. 


them in proper relative position. Any such sim¬ 
ple means will hold reinforcement in proper 
position while the mold is being filled with con¬ 
crete. It is also possible to purchase completely 
assembled reinforcement intended for use in 
various kinds of commercial fence post molds. 

Commercially it is common to use a' 1:2:4 
mixture for fence posts where it is known that 
sand and pebbles or other aggregates are well 
graded. If, however, there is any question as to 
the uniformity of grading of materials, then it is 
not advisable to use aggregate exceeding >4 in. in 
greatest dimension. 

o 





382 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


When properly graded coarse aggregate cannot 
be obtained, posts may be made from concrete 
mixed from 1 sack of portland cement to 3 cu. ft. 
of sand, provided the sand is well graded from 
fine particles up to >4 in - But such a mixture 
should not be used if a definite 1:2:3 or 1:2 :4 
can be prepared, as the 1:3 mixture will require 
more cement to produce a post of the same 
strength and hence will increase the cost. 

Commercial post molds are made of various 
types. .Some provide for casting the posts in a 
horizontal position, others for casting the post 
vertically. There seems to be little choice be¬ 
tween the two methods as excellent posts can be 
made either way. As concrete of suitable con¬ 
sistency for fence posts cannot be tamped with¬ 
out dislodging the reinforcement, the mixture 
must be made wet enough so that it can be set¬ 
tled in the molds either by stirring the concrete 
with a stick or rod, or by jarring the mold. The 
last mentioned method, known as the vibratory 
process, is now used by most manufacturers and 
is preferred wherever possible. Molds must be 
oiled to prevent the concrete from sticking. If 
concrete is mixed to the proper consistency this 
method insures a smooth surface and a dense 
post in which the reinforcement will be thor¬ 
oughly surrounded by concrete. Care must be 
taken not to use too much water. The concrete 
should not be slushy nor sloppy, as that will 
cause the mortar to separate from the coarse 
pebbles or broken stone and result in pockets in 
the concrete, possibly exposing the reinforcing in 
places, or upon evaporation of the excess water 
impair the continuous bond of concrete with 
reinforcing metal. * 

After molds have been filled the concrete is • 
allowed to remain undisturbed for a period of 
12 to 24 hours so that it will have acquired suf- 


FENCE POSTS 


383 


ficient strength to permit removing the posts 
from the molds. When the posts have attained 
sufficient strength so that if carefully handled 
they will not be injured, they should be removed 
to the steam curing room. 

Some types of fence posts and molds are 
covered by patents. As regards patented posts, 
some of the claims cover various means of 
attaching fencing or wires to the posts. Numerous 
ways of fastening line wires to concrete fence 
posts have been devised and used, including all 



■In¬ 


concrete Posts and Guard Rails Are Becoming Popular 

on Highways. 


sorts of schemes for embedding staples, T-irons 
and the like in the concrete while being placed in 
the mold. The most that can be said for any of 
these devices is that they will be effective until 
rust eats them away at the point where they 
enter the concrete. Perhaps a more serious ob¬ 
jection is that they establish an arbitrary level 
for line wires which is very inconvenient where 
the ground is irregular or the posts have not 
been set to a uniform depth. The last objection 
also holds against the methods of making holes 









384 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


through posts which has the additional fault of 
weakening them. The simplest method is that 
consisting of binding the line wire to the post by 
passing a short piece of wire around the post 
and wrapping the ends around the line wire at 
both sides of the post. Handy little tools for 
doing this quickly and efficiently are now on 
the market. Another patented post not included 
in the previous description is known as the staple 
post in the manufacture of which a strip of con¬ 
crete compound is placed into which strip staples 
may be driven at any point between the ground 
line and the top of the post. The words “con¬ 
crete compound” are used advisedly as the patent 
covers the concrete mixture which forms the 
stapling strip. In short the compound forms a 
body into which staples may be driven and which 
will hold the staples firmly. 

Concrete posts of various other types than 
those used for line r ences are made. The sizes 
vary in accordance with the purpose for which 
the post is intended. For instance, they are used 
for clothesline posts, for grape arbor posts, for 
corner posts, for lampposts or lighting stand¬ 
ards, etc. 

Making Concrete Posts Offers Profits. 

To the manufacturer of concrete products 
diversification offers a solution of a problem 
which faces almost every manufacturer during 
slack periods and in a limited market. However, 
to add a new product to the line is in the nature 
of an experiment and it is desirable to start with 
the smallest possible investment in additional 
equipment and to add to manufacturing facilities 
as demand increases. Concrete fence posts pre¬ 
sent an opportunity to increase profits with little 
additional initial expense in equipment and ma¬ 
terials. 


FENCE POSTS 


385 


Tn certain sections of the country concrete fence 
posts are rapidly replacing other types of posts on 
farms. Railroad companies also are large users 
of concrete fence posts along their rights of way 
and many miles of right of way boundaries lie 
in low, marshy or damp ground, or timber land 
where the danger of fire is ever present. The 
superior resistance concrete presents to both water 
and fire makes the concrete fence post eminently 
suitable for use by railroads, several of which use 
them as standard equipment. Railroads often 
prefer to contract for their posts ready to set 
rather than to make the posts. 

As to forms and other equipment one may 
choose from among several manufacturers. While 
a number of forms and devices for making con¬ 
crete fence posts have been placed on the market 
during the past decade or two, comparatively few 
of these have survived and it may safely be as¬ 
sumed that those which have stood the test are 
designed upon correct principles. Most of these 
forms today are simple, durable and practical in 
operation. Many men who began several years 
ago making fence posts with only a small equip¬ 
ment are now doing a very satisfactory business 
not only in fence posts but in other concrete prod¬ 
ucts, the demand for which followed upon con¬ 
scientious service. 

Concrete Fence Posts Best for Railroads. 

Reporting progress and developments for the 
year 1923, the committee on signs, fences and 
crossings of the American Railway Engineering 
Association, at the annual meeting, March 11 to 
13, 1923, presented some interesting and valuable 
data on the relative economies of concrete, steel 
and wood fence posts. Since 1913 the committee 
found, better results have been obtained with 
concrete posts, due to the fact that manufacturers 


386 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


have devoted more attention to design and mate¬ 
rials. The improvement of concrete posts has 
been reflected in the small number of failures in 
recent years. The committee expressed its belief 
that concrete posts would last at least 50 years. 

Steel posts, it was found, have a probable life 
of from 20 to 25 years, but are unsuited to 
swampy ground where their life averages about 
eight years. This is interesting, in view of the 
fact that statistics show a high percentage of 
right-of-way fencing is through swampy ground. 

“Generally speaking/’ reads the report, “wood 
posts seem to hold their own with steel or con¬ 
crete, especially where local conditions as to fire 
or other destructive elements are favorable, and 
particularly where wood is plentiful and the cost 
low. Local conditions would seem to be a large 
factor in determining which kind is the most 
economical.” 

This, too, is interesting, because only half the 
story is told. Timber lands are rapidly being cut 
away. The fire hazard is always present on a 
railroad right-of-way. In many parts of the West 
and South the initial cost of wood posts is not 
less than concrete. The report in itself is the 
strongest argument that can be put forward by 
the concrete fence post manufacturer, when it 
shows the average life of posts in years to be as 
follows: Concrete, 50.0; steel. 22.5; wood (aver¬ 
age), 23.7; wood (cedar), 23.9; wood (min. life), 
12 .0; wood (max. life), 30.3. 


CHAPTER XLVI. 


CONCRETE RAILROAD TIES 

Railways both steam and electric require ties, 
and many millions are used each year. The cost 
of timber ties has risen to a point where rail¬ 
roads may well consider the use of substitutes 
and it may be safely predicted that the only sat¬ 
isfactory substitute would be a properly designed 
and properly made concrete railway tie. 

Many patents have been issued on concrete rail¬ 
way ties and several have been tried out in ser¬ 
vice with excellent results. The manufacture of 
concrete railway ties is not something which can 
be done by every concrete products plant. This 
should constitute a business in itself. Selling usu¬ 
ally would have to be done directly to the steam 
and electric railway companies. It is probable 
that such ties can be supplied to electric railway 
companies with less selling effort than to the steam 
railway companies. Where an opportunity exists 
the prospective tie manufacturer should study the 
situation carefully and get expert advice regard¬ 
ing the tie to make and the methods to be em¬ 
ployed in the manufacture and sale of the 
products. 

Equipment to be used in making concrete rail¬ 
way ties would be somewhat different from that 
employed in making concrete building units. Vi¬ 
brators have been used to good effect in making 
concrete railway ties and such vibrators were of 
the same type as have been successfully tried out 
in making concrete burial vaults. 

This product is mentioned due to the great 
future possibilities that lie before the concrete 
tie manufacturer. It may be a number of years 
before railways are forced to give the attention 
to concrete ties that the product merits. It is to 



388 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


be expected that other interests will fight to pre¬ 
serve their tie business, even though the prices 
that may be charged may be considered exor¬ 
bitant. A concrete tie will last indefinitely; its 
cost consists of its first cost when installed. 
Practically no maintenance charges would have 
to be made against the concrete tie. 

A concrete railroad tie should possess the fol¬ 
lowing properties: 

1— Ability to carry imposed loads with safety. 

2— Ability to take the ordinary railroad spike. 

3— Ability to cushion the load so the constant impact 
will not gradually disintegrate the concrete. 

4— Ability to resist center binding. 

5— Ability to stay put. 

6— Ability for use on curves. 

7— Ability to resist fire, rot, corrosion and sudden 
strains. 

8— Light enough to be handled and strong enough to 
give service. 

9— Ability to permit replacement of wood spiking block 
without excessive cost. 

10— Ability to hold wood spiking blocks under service. 

11— Economy in first 'cost and in maintenance. 

When concrete railroad ties are required in 
quantities it will be found that plants for their 
manufacture should be well distributed to reduce 
the haul from point of manufacture to point of 
use, and thereby reduce the total cost. 

Men interested in the concrete products indus¬ 
try have often asked, “Why are not concrete rail¬ 
road ties in general use?" The answer cannot be 
given in a few words. The patents on concrete 
ties probably number more than 1000 and of the 
various designs some have been tried by railways 
with more or less success. 

A tie designed to permit the use of the well- 
known railroad spike is to be preferred to a de¬ 
sign requiring bolts in place of spikes. A wood 
block to take spikes will also serve to cushion the 
rail or tie plate. Such ties have been used in some 


RAILROAD TIES 389 

foreign countries and in the United States. Two 
ties possessing many points of merit are the Good- 
lett tie and the Shearer tie. 

The Goodlett Concrete Tie. 

The Goodlett tie is composed of two end-sec¬ 
tions of reinforced concrete, and so reinforced 
that they are practically indestructible. In the 
center of each of these end sections are tapered 



Goodlett Concrete Ties on Main Lead Switch in Southern 
Pacific Yards, Oakland, Cal. 


slots, running about two-thirds the depth of the 
concrete section, into which blocks of wood are 
placed, the rail being spiked to the wood inserts 
with ordinary railroad spikes. The wood inserts 
have an exposed portion, standing about 1 in. 
above the surface of the concrete, so that the rail 
really rests upon a wood-tie base, and perfect in ¬ 
sulation is obtained. A resilient bed for the rails 
is provided equal to the all-wood tie. As the road 
is used, the tendency is more and more to com¬ 
press the wood block insert and increase its life 
and efficiency, at the same time increasing its 
spike-holding power, which is just the reverse of 












390 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


the ordinary experience with the well-known 
wood tie. The wood insert is protected against 
destruction or decay. 

The end sections are held together by two 
.steel rods, of such diameter as to afford resil¬ 
iency to the tie, and wholly overcoming any tend¬ 
ency of the center of the road to “hang-up.” It 
is well known that one of the most serious phases 
of road bed structure is for the tie to become cen¬ 
ter-bound. Every tie, wood or manufactured, 
which is a continuous unit is subject to this diffi¬ 
culty but the tie here shown wholly eliminates this 



Two Goodlett Ties Taken from Main Lead Switch in 
S. P. Railroad Yards at Oakland, Cal., After 
2 Years Heavy Service. 


important primary problem. Having a resilient 
center, the Goodlett tie practically overcomes 
“creeping” of the track. It will be evident that, 
whereas a solid unit tie will creep, this type of 
construction cannot creep, because to do so would 
practically necessitate movement of about one- 
third of the entire road bed. By virtue of the 
same principle this type of tie construction is 
superior to a wood tie on curves, because where 
the solid tie will slide under the side thrust of a 
train upon a curve, the road bed center in this 
manner of tie construction becomes a holding body 
and resists any tendency to side thrust. 

The wood block inserts offer the simplest re¬ 
pair problem. The only requirement is to remove 
enough soil to place a bar between the two joining 









RAILROAD TIES 


391 


rods and pry the tie onto its side. A hole in the 
tie running to the bottom permits the introduction 
of a tool from the bottom or any other common 
means by which the wood block can be driven out. 
A new block is then inserted, the tie turned over, 
and it is again ready for service. As the wood 
block insert is practically air tight m the slot in 
the concrete, its life is many times intensified and 
it is not subject to disintegration by atmospheric 
changes due to the reason that it does not rest 



A Corner of the Factory in Which Goodlett Ties Were 
Made for S. P. Railroad and Other Experiments 

in Service. 


upon the road bed, but, rather, is held by the con¬ 
crete above the road bed. Moisture can in no way 
affect it. The wearing life of the tie depends 
upon changing the wood inserts. Experience 
with this tie has proved that where accidents 
have occurred and a car or cars are thrown from 
the track and ride over the ties, the gage and 
alignment of the road bed is not impaired. 

The open center of these ties gives rigidity 
where it is needed, and all the resiliency where * 
beneficial. The wood block being pressed into the 
concrete section is frictionally held, practically air 
tight, and the operation of the train tends to com¬ 
press the wood, make it more durable and assists 
in holding the spikes. It being impossible for the 






392 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


wood to split or crack, the efficiency of the spike 
is greatly increased. Impact on the rails is taken 
up by the wood block and distributed through the 
resilient connecting rods and does not injure the 
reinforced concrete structure. The concrete 
around the hole in which the wood block is in¬ 
serted is reinforced so that any tendency to a Split- 



Making Goodlett Reinforced Concrete Railroad Ties on a 

Goodlett Vibrator. 


ting action is overcome. The wood block rests 
upon a base slightly above the road bed so that its 
downward movement is fixed. In this construe- 






RAILROAD TIES 393 

tion the rail does not come into contact with the 
concrete at any point, and the wood block forms 
a means of taking- up vibration. In general prac¬ 
tice the wood insert is made of two pieces, slightly 
tapering, which make it more efficient when in¬ 
serted, and yet easier of removal when necessary 
to be removed. 

The tie is made the same depth as the standard 
wood tie, and can he interchangeably used. They 


Shearer Concrete Railroad Ties Installed Near Curve on 
D., T. & I Railroad in Michigan. 

can be built with differing dimensions to accom¬ 
modate various conditions of traffic. 

The Shearer Railroad Tie. 

The Shearer tie, invented by F. C. Shearer and 
made by the L T . S. Indestructible Tie Mfg. Co., 
Eagle Pass, Tex., has been tried on a railway at 
















394 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


Eagle Pass and more recently on the Detroit, 
Toledo & lronton Railroad near Detroit, Mich. 
The Shearer tie consists of a one piece solid con¬ 
crete unit suitably reinforced and provided with 
recesses to take wood spiking and cushion blocks 
and with a portion of the bottom beveled with a 
view to eliminating center binding. The wood 
block may be held in the tie by steel straps and 
bolts or by bolts and washers. The rails may rest 
on steel tie plates and be secured to the ties by 
the use of ordinary spikes or screw spikes. 

The Shearer concrete tie was put down for a 
test in the Eagle Pass railroad yards on the city 
side, at the end of a bridge across a creek, May 5, 
1916. There were put in 22 ties. The first one 
was broken in the middle before being laid for 
the purpose of determining what result would 
attend breakage in the course of usage. The rest 



Shearer Reinforced Concrete Railroad Tie As It Appears 
When Ready for Service. 


i 

were perfect ties. After 6 years service the 22 
ties show no sign of wear or depreciation in any 
respect. The broken tie has served just as well 
as the other ties. The outstanding fact in connec¬ 
tion with this 6-year test, however, is that in all 
of the time there has not been a tamping bar or 
any other manner of work put to the ties or the 
roadbed which they cover. They stand exactly 
today as they did in 1916, representing, as an 
engineer said, who recently viewed the piece of 
track, “the prettiest anywhere out-of-doors.” 

The test has shown the remarkable fact that in 
the hardest position a tie can be set or a piece of 
ballasting maintained, immediately ofif the end of 


RAILROAD TIES 


395 



a bridge, where the greatest strain, jolt and gen¬ 
eral hardship comes upon trackage. The Shearer 
tie has kept the roadbed absolutely level and held 
its perfect fastening for more than 6 years. 

The accompanying illustrations show the 
Shearer ties installed in Michigan on the Detroit, 
Toledo & Ironton Railroad in the fall of 1922. 
The ties have been in service for more than 12 
months and are giving excellent satisfaction. Since 


Mold Mounted on a Goodlet Vibrator in Plant of Henry 
Barneskan Where Shearer Ties for D., T. & I. 

Railroad Were Made. 

the ties were placed three derailments have oc¬ 
curred at a switch just north of a curve near 
which the ties are located. Heavily loaded cars 
were dragged over the ties with no damage to the 
concrete ties although it is reported that some 
hundred ties on each side of the concrete tie sec¬ 
tion were broken. These Shearer ties were made 
in steel molds on a Goodlett vibrator at the prod- 




396 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


nets plant of Henry A. Barneskan Co., Detroit. 
The mold has a cubity of 4 ft. and it took 6 cu. ft. 
of concrete to fill the mold. Mr. Shearer, in re¬ 
ferring to the derailments, says: “It was a most 
severe test and I doubt very much if the ties 
woulddiave stood up if they had been made with¬ 
out the use of the vibrator." It has been said that 
concrete which would ordinarily weigh from 144 
to 150 lbs. per cu. ft. will when consolidated on a 
Goodlett vibrator weigh from 155 to 160 lbs. per 
cu. ft. It can therefore be seen that a stronger 
concrete would be obtained by using the vibrator, 
as is indicated by the proven service ability of the 
Shearer ties on the D., T. & I. R. R. 

In August of this year a party of engineers in¬ 
spected the Shearer ties on the D., T. & I. R. R. 
and a member of the party wrote to Mr. Shearer, 
stating: “I am pleased to report that we found 
same (the ties) in a very permanent and excellent 
condition. We witnessed a heavy freight passing 
over these ties, and by observation noticed the 
ties to be most firmly imbedded, showing no yield¬ 
ing whatever other than in the wood section to 
which the rail is spiked." This statement proves 
that the wood spiking block acts as a cushion. 

The Dickey Railroad Tie. 

W. T. Dickey, of Portsmouth, Ya., patented the 
tie described herein and assigned the patent to the 
American Concrete Tie Corp., Portsmouth, Va. 
The tie consists of a reinforced beam provided 
with four slots and holes to receive bolts used to 
secure the rails to the tie. Between the rail and 
the tie surface a wood block is set. Rail clamps 
engage in a recess in the surface of the tie. Each 
holding down holt is provided with a spring 
washer. The nuts are held in the aforementioned 
slots. 

These ties have been in service on the Norfolk: 


RAILROAD TIES 397 

& Portsmouth Belt Line railway for nearly 5 
years. The ties were installed in June, 1919. 
Following is a letter, dated July 12, 1923, written 
by the president of the Norfolk & Portsmouth 
Belt Line Railroad Co. 

1 ies Carry Heavy Loads With Safety. 

To Whom It May Concern —On June 4, 1919, 18 of 



Method of Fastening Rails to the Dickey Reinforced Con¬ 
crete Railroad Tie. 

the Dickey concrete ties were applied in the Belt Line 
track. These ties were put in under a 33-ft. rail a short 
distance north of High street, Portsmouth, Va. The 
Ameri'can Concrete Tie Corp. has purchased the Dickey 
patent and these ties are now known as the American 
Concrete Tie Corp. ties. 

At this writing, July 12, 1923, those ties are in as good 
condition as when put in the track and have today re¬ 
ceived in writing from our supervisor of roadway, R. D. 
Quillin, who has been with the road 24 years, the fol¬ 
lowing : 

“I think these ties improve with age. If installed 








398 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

properly when first put in service, will, in my 
opinion, last 75 years longer.’’ 

These 18 ties are at a point in Belt Line tracks oyer 
which a great deal of switching is done in classifying 
cars, in addition to which switching in the year 1920, 
143,828 loaded cars and 45,254 empty cars passed over 
these ties. In the year 1921, 115,333 loaded cars and 
76,928 empty cars, and in the year 1922, 152,735 loaded 
cars and 79,413 empty cars. Being a switching road, 
we do not keep a re-cord of tonnage, but these cars were 
all interchanged with the eight trunk lines terminating 
in Norfolk harbor, and all the weight of the lading 
was the same as is handled over trunk line railroads. 

The heaviest engines belonging to the Norfolk & 
Portsmouth Belt Line Railroad Co., which pass daily 
over these ties, is 300,000 lbs. and have had engines 
belonging to the Virginian Railway Co. over them 
weighing 806,000 lbs. 

Geo. S. Shafer, President. 

The vice-president of the Seaboard Air Line 
Railway Co. inspected some of these ties under 
service and reported as follows under date of 
July 14, 1923: 

American Concrete Tie Corp .: I have personally in¬ 
spected the concrete ties that you have had installed in 
the Beit Line tracks at the head of Port Norfolk Yards. 
From this inspection I believe you have solved the ques¬ 
tion of providing a satisfactory concrete tie. The 
features which impressed me in connection with these 
ties is the method you have used to fasten the ties to 
the rail. With this fastening the tie is relieved from the 
shock caused by rigid fastening and in addition does 
not disturb the tie in its bed in the tracks. 

The special advantages I see in your ties are : 

1. A practically unlimited life. 

2. The avoidance of the unusual strains which go 
to disintegrate the concrete tie as it is usually fastened 

to the rails, and 

3. The fact that the spring connection prevents the 
wave motion of the rail from disturbing the tie in its 
bed in the track which will, to my mind, materially 
reduce the cost of maintaining such track. 

I shall take great pleasure in recommending a trial 
of your ties by my railroad friends. 

W. L. Seddon, Vice-President. 

These letters are very commendatory and 


RAILROAD TIES 


399 

















400 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


should convince railroad engineers that concrete 
railway ties must come into use. 

Concrete Ties Used in India. 

Three railways of India have definitely adopted 
concrete ties, or sleepers, as they call them. 

The East Indian railway has been interested in 
the matter since 1915, when a section of track 
was laid with sleepers of the Green-Moore type, 
and these have proved so successful that the com¬ 
pany is erecting a factory which will have an 
initial output of 50,000 sleepers per year and will 
be capable of expansion to 100,000. The Bengal- 
Nagpur railway has adopted the same system and 
has acquired a license to manufacture 300,000, 
although the period over which this number is 
spread is not stated. 

Another system, invented by a D. H. Stent, has 
been adopted on the North-Western railway, 
where 50 miles of track have already been laid 
with Stent concrete sleepers, and arrangements 
are being made to equip an additional 75 miles 
with the same type. 

The Stent sleeper, which is manufactured at 
Bird & Co., concrete works at Delhi, consists of 
two concrete block joined together by a tie bar. 
As in cast-iron sleepers, the rail fastening is by 
means of screw or dog spikes driven into wooden 
plugs, especially treated and compressed, and set 
in the body of the concrete block. Rails of any 
section from 70 to 110 lbs. can be laid on the 
standard concrete sleeper. 

More than 100 factory made concrete units arc 
made for railway service including cribbing, 
trunking, battery boxes, switchmen’s shanties and 
bridge slabs. Knowing the uses to which so many 
concrete units have been put in railway service, 
it is somewhat surprising to note the apparent 
lack of interest among railway engineers and raiU 


RAILROAD TIES 


401 


way officials in the subject of concrete railway 
ties. 

Sooner or later the railways will have to come 
to the use of concrete ties and it would seem wise 
to expend a few thousand dollars in experiments 
to obtain data which will be more valuable as time 
passes. Instead of 18 or 100 ties, the railroads 
should install experimental sections of a mile or 
more in length. With the various proven ties on 
the market, no railway should be at a loss to select 
a tie for any service that may be required. 


CHAPTER XLVII. 


CONCRETE BURIAL VAULTS 

The idea of using burial vaults of some kind is 
as old as history. Most construction materials 
have been employed in attempting to get a vault 
that will defy time and the elements. The con¬ 
crete burial vault is a recent product the develop¬ 
ment of which may be claimed for the present 
century. As manufacturing processes and equip¬ 
ment were improved so did the quality of the 
concrete vault increase. Today the high grade 
vault is available throughout America. There are 



*®M**«1^ 


Interior of Stockroom of Concrete Burial Vault Plant. 

opportunities for more manufacturers of good 
concrete vaults. 

Equipment. 

Molds should be of metal, either steel or cast 





























BURIAL VAULTS 


403 


iron. Steel plate has been used by the greater 
number of mold manufacturers and has proved 
satisfactory when the molds were properly de¬ 
signed and well made. Molds should be designed 
to save labor in assembling and taking down. 
Molds must be stiff and capable of taking the load 
of concrete and to resist the puddling action neces¬ 
sary to consolidate the concrete by the method in 
general use. Molds which are light and which 
will buckle in use are expensive at any price. 
Good equipment should be installed before manu¬ 
facture is started. Equipment should include a 
concrete mixer, lifting devices, means for han¬ 
dling raw materials and the finished products, 



Type of Vacuum Burial Vault Made by George Ziegele. 


accessory tools and a steam curing system if the 
plant is designed to make a number of vaults in 
a day. Where but one or two vaults are made, 
as a side line of the main business, steam curing 
may not be necessary if other means are taken to 
the end that the concrete will be properly 
hardened. 

Materials and Methods. 

Materials used should be standard portland ce¬ 
ment and clean, well graded aggregate not larger 
than in. In general 1 part portland cement to 










404 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


2 parts torpedo sand which will pass a 34-in. 
screen. Aggregate ranging from fine sand to 
pebbles up to in. diam., may permit using 1 
part cement to 234 parts of aggregate. Aggre¬ 
gates generally used for vaults embrace sand, 
pebbles, crushed granite, trap rock, blast furnace 
slag, and hard limestone. A patented process 



Lifting Concrete Burial Vault in a Rope Sling. 


employs cinders as aggregate but at this writing 
that process is not in general use. 

Concrete should be of a consistency which will 
permit easy pouring and puddling so the concrete 
will flow around and bond with the reinforcement 
which is used in the manufacture of most of the 
vaults on the market. No more water should be 
used than is necessary to obtain a dense vault 
free from large voids. 

As soon as the molds are removed from the 
hardened vault it should be examined for pits or 
surface voids and then given a coating of cement 






BURIAL VAULTS 


405 


grout which should be applied to a small area and 
well rubbed into the concrete before application 
is made to adjoining areas. All surplus grout 
should be rubbed off the surfaces. The vaults 
should be kept damp for the proper hydration of 
the cement grout. 

The Goodlett vibrator has been used success¬ 
fully in the manufacture of concrete burial vaults 
and it was found possible to fill a mold on the 
vibrator in 20 minutes as against 1 hour required 
for filling without the vibrator. It was found 
that a surface approaching perfection was ob¬ 
tained on all surfaces. Molds used on a vibrator 
must be specially designed to resist the vibration. 

Patented molds are on the market to be used 
in manufacturing concrete burial vaults and the 
manufacturer will usually give information on the 
use of his molds and the processes to be employed 
in the manufacture of the burial vaults. The 
vaults should be smooth, clean and water tight. 
They are made of both plain and reinforced con¬ 
crete. Reinforcement used is generally of the 
mesh type, either woven wire or expanded metal. 
It is recommended that reinforcement be used 
in both vault and cover. 

Selling Vaults. 

No vault should leave the plant unless it is 
water tight and presents a good appearance. 
Some manufacturers coat the inside and outside 
surfaces with various compounds designed to add 
to the appearance of the vault or to satisfy the 
buyer’s desire for a special surface. 

The market for concrete burial vaults has 
barely been touched. With more than 1,300,000 
burials a year the business possibilities may be 
expressed by estimating the average selling price 
at $100 and multiplying this price by the number 
of burials. For the entire United States the large 


406 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


sum of $130,000,000 expresses the possibilities in 
this business. It is not to be expected that all of 
this business will be given to the concrete vault 
makers but to get as much of it as is possible 
it is necessary to make a high grade vault and to 
adopt the right selling policy. 

Burial vaults may be manufactured as a sep¬ 
arate business, as a department of a going con¬ 
cern or in a small way as a side line in small 
towns or districts where the possible sales are not 
numerous. As in all other branches of the con¬ 
crete products industry the successful manufac¬ 
ture and sale of concrete burial vaults must be 
based on quality products and good business 
methods. 

Many manufacturers sell their entire output 
of burial vaults through the undertakers, allow¬ 
ing a generous commission on each sale. The 
undertaker is the proper person to sell the vault. 


CHAPTER XLVIII. 


CONCRETE MONUMENTS AND 
MARKERS. 

Monuments are being constructed of concrete 
and range from massive cast in place structures 
such as the ‘‘Fountain of Time” in Chicago and 
the colossal statue of “Blackhawk” to precast 
monuments made in a factory and moved to the 
place of erection. The two pieces of work before 
mentioned are the products of Lorado Taft, Chi¬ 
cago’s famous sculptor who has through the 
medium of concrete expressed his artistic concep¬ 
tions of what such monuments should be. Such 
remarkable work indicates what can be done in 
large and small works of art, with the aid of 
concrete. 

Grave markers and small monuments are being 
made in accordance with the same good practice 
which has made concrete garden furniture popu¬ 
lar. The same materials, equipment and processes 
are employed in making markers and precast 
monuments. The molds for these products are 
usually made of wood due to the fact that many 
monuments are seldom duplicated. For markers 
or borders, molds may be of wood, metal or plas¬ 
ter. Plaster molds are available for special work. 
Some of the monuments are made of cast concrete 
which is afterward tooled the same as marble and 
granite work. There is less waste of labor and 
materials when concrete is used as the molds are 
designed to reduce tool work to a minimum. 
Equipment such as planers, lathes, grinding ma¬ 
chines and air tools for hand work used in large 
plants manufacturing concrete monuments and 
trim stone are the same as are used in natural 
stone plants. 



408 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


The manufacture of monuments and grave 
markers may well be conducted as a department 
of an ornamental products factory or in combina¬ 
tion with the manufacture of concrete burial 
vaults. 

The monument shown on this page is made of 



Concrete Monument Erected by Fellow Workers to the 
Memory of “Jim” at Ronceverte, W. Va. 


concrete in miniature of a concrete chimney from 
which an unknown worker fell and was killed by 
the fall. He was so popular with his fellow 
workers that they erected this monument over the 
grave of the unknown worker. 




CHAPTER XLIX. 


CURING CONCRETE PRODUCTS. 

Proper curing of concrete is more important 
than is generally realized. Many persons fail to 
appreciate the fact that, though all other princi¬ 
ples of good concrete practice may have been 
observed, neglect of the proper curing method or 
procedure will essentially nullify the other good 
work and result in a concrete of less strength. 



Unfortunately proper means of curing con¬ 
crete are not so easy to apply in connection with 
monolithic concrete construction as in the manu¬ 
facture of concrete products, and perhaps that is 
why neglect is more common in the former than 
in the latter case. 

Concrete hardens because of chemical reactions 
between portland cement and water. This process 
of hardening is slow and continuous and unless 

















410 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


sufficient moisture is present, it cannot be com¬ 
pleted. The water essential to proper hardening 
of fresh concrete may be lost from the mixture 
by absorption or by evaporation—even after the 
concrete has begun to harden. Under such condi¬ 
tions, concrete attains only part of its potential 
strength. Therefore, the water content of the 
newly placed concrete should be conserved. By 



Chart A—Series 141, Lewis Institute. 

keeping concrete damp during its early hardening 
period or, in other words, by providing plenty of 
curing water, the loss of necessary moisture is 
prevented, and the concrete is permitted to harden 
under favorable conditions. 

Tests made by the Structural Materials Re¬ 
search Laboratory, Lewis Institute, Chicago, show 
these conclusions: 

























CURING CONCRETE 


411 


Keeping concrete damp the first 10 days adds 75% to 
its compressive strength and increases the resistance to 
wear 65%. Three weeks’ protection of new concrete 
adds still more to its strength and hardness. 

Concrete 1 day old cured for 24 hours at 125 degs. F. 
is the same strength as concrete 3 x / 2 days cured at 65 
degs. F. 

Concrete 1 day old cured for 24 hours at 125 degs. F. 



Chart B—Series 141, Lewis Institute. 


is three times as strong as when cured 24 hours at 65 
degs. F. 

Concrete 3 days old is twice as strong when cured 
for 72 hours at 125 degs. F. as when cured for the 
same period at 65 degs. F. 

Concrete cured at 125 deg. F. for 3 days is 66% 
stronger than when cured at the same temperature for 1 
day. Concrete cured at 125 degs. F. for 2 days is 37.5%. 
stronger than when cured at that temperature for 1 day. 

Concrete 3 days old cured for 3 days at 125 degs. F. 
has the same strength of concrete 7 days old cured at 
65 degs. F. 

In charts A and B shown herein the graphs 
were plotted from data given in the accompanying 


































412 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


table, from Series 141, Lewis Institute. They 
show that the strength of concrete increased rap¬ 
idly with the temperature of the storage water at 
the early ages—that is, from 2 to 7 days. At 28 



7 ernperaiure . of 5 for ago Wcrfer - /f° 

Chart C—Series 141, Lewis Institute. 

days the increase in strength was relatively small. 
The increase in strength at ages from 2 to 7 days 
was not as rapid above a temperature of 125 degs. 
F. as it was below this temperature. It should be 
noted that in these tests both moisture and heat 
were present. 

In curing concrete products with steam, little 
will be gained by raising the temperature of the 
curing room unless the air of the room is kept 
moist. Unless sufficient moisture is present in the 



















CURING CONCRETE 


413 


curing room it is probable that harm will be done 
as the concrete will give up its moisture to the 
dry, hot atmosphere and a normal increase in 
strength will not result. 


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Chart D—Series 141, Lewis institute. 


In the manufacture of concrete products the 
curing or hardening process is accomplished 
either in steam rooms or so-called curing cham¬ 
bers, or by the sprinkling method. Of the two, 
the steam-curing process is by all means to be 
preferred, although from the very nature of some 
products it is not always commercially practicable. 

In the manufacture by machine of most con¬ 
crete products there is the regrettable tendency 
to use less water than the machines or process 
of manufacture will permit. This tendency is 
largely the result of an endeavor to increase out¬ 
put. However, because of the fact stated, it is 





















414 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


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CURING CONCRETE 


415 


imperative that if the products are to give the 
satisfaction expected of concrete, the best means 
available must be applied to thoroughly cure 
them. 

Steam curing insures uniform results re¬ 
gardless of season. It is particularly advan¬ 
tageous in winter manufacturing as it enables the 
product plant to carry on its work uninterrupt¬ 
edly without regard for outdoor temperature 
conditions. 

In the steam curing of concrete products 
two factors are essential. Neglect of either 
sometimes results in improperly cured products 
as well as in products lacking uniformity of 
color. 

First, the steam curing chamber must be so 
tight as to prevent circulation of air and the 
subsequent existence of a heated atmosphere not 
thoroughly saturated with water vapor that 
would result in the rapid evaporation of water 
from the surface of the products. 

Second, steam must not be allowed to enter 
the curing chamber under pressure in such a 
manner as to strike the green concrete. If it 
does, rapid evaporation from the surface of the 
products takes place and drying, instead of the 
intended curing is the result, with a consequent 
structural weakening of the product. Common 
practice requires that steam be admitted to the 
chamber or curing room through a perforated 
pipe which passes through a trough filled with 
water. Perforations in this pipe are placed down 
so that a saturated vapor always exists in the 
room. 

In the early history of concrete products 
manufacture it was customary to use exhaust 
steam for heating curing chambers. However, 
as such source of supply is insufficient for the 
average plant, the natural resort was to draw 


416 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


steam direct from boiler. In many such cases 
large quantities of otherwise good concrete prod¬ 
ucts were destroyed, because the action result¬ 
ing from direct steam under boiler pressure was 
not at that time understood. It is especially diffi¬ 
cult to maintain a sufficient quantity of steam in 
a boiler at low temperature to properly heat and 
humidify any number of curing rooms. Added to 
this difficulty is the danger that the pressure will 
rise considerably above that necessary to supply 
the steam required by proper curing. 

Experience has shown that steam under pres¬ 
sure of from 30 to 45 lbs. 1 may be effectively 
used if admitted through water as already sug¬ 
gested. Depending upon the size of the room, 
steam may be admitted either through a trough 
of water running along the center or through 
troughs along the sides of the curing chamber. 
'The door of the room should be of concrete so 
sloped that any water condensation on the prod¬ 
uct or on the walls of the chamber may return 
to the trough for re-evaporation, thus auto¬ 
matically keeping the trough full of water. Ex¬ 
perience has proved that by following this prac¬ 
tice successful curing results. 

The contention has been raised that if the 
temperature of the steam admitted is lowered in 
the water, as it quite naturally is, then some of 
its moisture must at once be lost by condensation, 
with the result that a smaller instead of a greater 
quantity of moisture will be carried into the 
room by reason of the steam having passed 
through the water in the trough. This conten¬ 
tion seems plausible until one realizes that the 
assumption is contrary to the law that energy 
cannot be created or destroyed. Although water 
in the trough is at a lower temperature than the 
steam going through the pipe, the temperature of 


Pressure at the boiler. 



CURING CONCRETE 


417 


the water is at the boiling point, due to the fact 
that steam under pressure is continually being 
forced through it, and what heat is taken up by 
the water is used in evaporation. Water evap¬ 
orated at 21*2 degs. F. is just as useful for curing 
concrete as is steam at the same temperature. 

1 he drying action of steam under pressure 
as admitted to the curing chamber may be ex¬ 
plained as follows: 

Assume that steam is being taken from a 
boiler at 30 lbs. gage pressure. The temperature 
of the steam in the boiler is 272 degs. F. Upon 
opening a valve to release the steam, its tempera¬ 
ture is reduced 252 degs. atmospheric pres¬ 
sure. Under such conditions, that is, atmos¬ 
pheric pressure and a temperature of 252 degs., 
the steam is abnormal in that it contains 40 degs. 
of superheat. This means that the steam is in a 
condition similar to that which would obtain if 
it were possible to heat water vapor at 212 degs. 
up to 252 degs. away from contact with water. 
Naturally the first thing that steam under such 
conditions would do would be to attempt to reach 
normal conditions, and in a curing room filled 
with green concrete products this would result in 
an evaporation of water from.the concrete with 
a consequent too rapid drying out of the concrete 
exposed to the steam at the point of admission to 
the room. Steam at 30 or 40 lbs. boiler pressure 
admitted to the room through water in an open 
tank or trough maintains a uniformly moist heat 
that assures uniform curing. Under such condi¬ 
tions brick, block, tile and similar concrete prod¬ 
ucts may be sufficiently cured during summer 
weather within 48 hours after made, and then 
may be removed from the curing chamber and 
allowed to gain strength slowly under ordinary 
methods of protection. In winter 96 hours of 
steam curing should be given before exposing to 


418 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

outdoor temperature or weather conditions. This 
practice will prevent damage due to freezing. 

Immediately after formed, the product should 
be run into the curing chamber, although it 
is not advisable to start the steam until the 
products have stood about i hour, especially in 
cold weather, because condensation will be great 
until the chamber and the products are warm 
•With this precaution there will be no gathering 
of surface moisture on the green products suffi¬ 
cient to damage them. When the steam has been 
turned off and the doors have been open long 
enough for the products to assume normal tem¬ 
perature, they may be placed in stock piles for 
io days, when they will have attained greater 
strength than similar products cured by water 
will attain in 28 days. 

It should be borne in mind that concrete ex¬ 
posed to temperatures less than 40 degs. F. gains 
little if any strength while low temperature pre¬ 
vails. Therefore concrete products made during 
the winter months or during freezing weather 
should be steam cured or cured under cover 
where moist air is kept at a temperature over 65 
degs. F. at the least. After removal from the 
curing rooms and exposed to the winter weather 
chemical hardening or hydration of the cement 
will cease. If steam cured until the concrete has 
taken its permanent set and the blocks are not 
dry they will pick up strength in the spring when 
the temperature of the surrounding air rises above 
40 degs. F. The higher the temperature the 
greater will be the acceleration of strength in 
the concrete as long as free moisture is present 
for hydrating the cement. If no moisture is 
present hydration cannot be resumed. It would 
be good practice to sprinkle all yard stock piles 
of concrete products in the early spring. 

Only by means of saturated steam curing is 


CURING CONCRETE 


419 


it possible to obtain uniform conditions through¬ 
out the year. The color of the products will 
more closely approach uniformity, owing to the 
fact that each piece, under the conditions de¬ 
scribed, will receive the same treatment. The 
corners and facing of blocks or other products 
will not be exposed to the usual injuries almost 
inseparably connected with stacking green prod¬ 
ucts in the open yard. The saving of time and 
yard room also is bv no means an insignificant 
item. 


Report on Design of Curing Rooms. 1 

In studying the design of curing rooms for 
concrete products plants, it is evident there is not 



Section of Curing Room .Designed for a Single or Double 
Row of Lift Truck Racks. 


much trouble in arriving at a conclusion as to the 
best design because the object is to give moisture 
and heat to the product at the least cost in order 

Abstract from report of Committee P-6 Concrete Prod¬ 
ucts Plant Operation, J. W. Lowell, chairman, presented 
at 1922 Convention, American Concrete Institute. 















































420 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


that the hardening of the product can be hastened. 

Several methods have been suggested at various 
times for steam curing rooms, such as the use of 
steam shot into troughs of water, radiator systems 
and water sprinkling and low pressure steam shot 
directly into the curing rooms. A scientific 
analysis from the standpoint of effectiveness and 
economy shows that steam radiation through pipes 
with an extra pipe equipped with controlled open- 


Concrete slab 1-2^ mix 


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Section of Curing Room Designed for Two Lines of Nar¬ 
row Gage Track. 


ings to regulate the amount of saturation in the 
curing room will prove most satisfactory. 

Before designing the heating system, climatic 
conditions should be studied to arrive at the tem¬ 
peratures to be used. Obviously, a heating plant 
designed to meet the extreme conditions of time 
and temperature would be entirely too large for 
normal conditions. In a temperate climate there 
may be several days of winter with temperature 
down to zero, or even below. The temperature 




























421 



Narrow and Low Steam Curing Tunnel with Steam Pipe 
in Trough—Arranged for Cars. 

maximum, and therefore the curing time should 
be at the minimum. Jt is during this time that the 
finished product may be required to be ready for 
outside storage in 24 hours. 

From the best information available, the maxi- 


CURING CONCRETE 


of most of the winter days would be at least 32 
degs. F. It must also be kept in mind that winter 
conditions prevail not over 3 months, or 25% of 
the time, in the United States. Mild and warm 
weather covers the remainder of the 75%. In 
warm weather the factory output should be at a 













422 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


mum rate of absorption of heat by wet concrete 
in still air is approximately \y 2 B.t.u. per sq. ft. 
of exposed surface per degree difference in tem¬ 
perature per hour. Therefore, knowing the num¬ 
ber of products in a chamber, their exposed area 
and the number of pounds of concrete, the total 
B.t.u. required to raise the product to a given 
temperature and the number of hours required 
to absorb that heat can be determined. 

Another factor in the problem is the quantity 
of heat generated in the hardening of concrete. 
Although some experiments have been conducted 
indicating that considerable heat is given off 
through chemical action, results are not such as 
to make it possible to state definitely how many 
B.t.u. should be figured under ordinary operating 
conditions. 

It is evident, however, that this quantity of heat 
will help materially. As there are, however, so 
many unknown factors in the problem, this extra 
amount will only be considered as being useful 
when the temperatures are outside the ratine for 

A C> 

which the heating system is designed. 

The following assumptions are made in design¬ 
ing the plant: 

1. Production, one thousand S by S by 16-in. block per 
day. 

2. Each curing room will hold one-half day’s produc¬ 
tion. 

3. Each room will be wide enough to conveniently turn 
and manipulate a lift truck or to place three rows of 
products racks or cars. A 12-ft. width is adopted. 

4. Each room will be 35 ft. long and 12 ft. wide. 

5. The height of the roof will be a minimum in which 
a man can work without injury to himself. Adopt wall 
height of 6 ft. 

6. Ridge of roof at center and parallel to side walls. 
Slope of roof a minimum to prevent dripping. Adopt a 
slope 1 ft. vertical to 3 ft. horizontal, 

7. Construction shall be: 

1. Concrete block or other masonry wall 8 ins thick. 

2. Substantial insulated roof. 

3. Concrete floor 5 ins. thick on 6 ins. of compacted 

cinder fill. 

4. Doors to fit tight and be made of double sheathing 

with insulating material between. 


CURING CONCRETE 423 

Assumed Operating Conditions. 

1. Relative humidity of air inside of curing- rooms shall 
be not less than 80% and as near 100% as it is possible 
to obtain. 

2. Curing- room and products in it shall be brought to 
125 degs. F. and maintained at that temperature. 

3. In three of the curing rooms the temperature of 
125 degs. F. should be maintained simultaneously while 
the fourth room is being brought to 125 degs. F. and the 
fifth is being emptied and filled with products. This per¬ 
mits of 48-hour curing which is desirable when the out¬ 
side air is above 32 degs. F., but still cool. 

4. Assume the air outside to be 32 degs. F. 

5. Assume the air in the plant building to be 70 degs. F. 

6. Assume the temperature of the block before curing 
to be 65 degs. F. 

7. Assume the conductivity of the curing room struc¬ 
ture in B.t.u. transferred per 1 deg. F. difference in tem¬ 
perature per hour per square foot to be as follows:' 

Walls — 0.30 
Roof = 0.45 
Ends r= 0.60 
Floor =: 0.10 

8. Assume that the product under above conditions will 
be brought to the 125 degs. F. temperature in 6 hours. 

Solution of heating problem is as follows: 

1. Maximum range of temperature from 32 degs. to 125 


degs. = 93 degs. F. 

B.t.u. 

HeatLosses. per hr. 

B.t.u. loss in walls = 0.30 X 2 X 35 X 6 X 93 . 11,718 

B.t.u. less in roof = 0.45 X 5 X 12.6 X 35 X 93 92,278 

B.t.u. loss in outside ends — 0.60 X 60 X 6.7 X 93 .... 22,431 

B.t.u. loss in inside ends = 0.60 X 60 X 6.7 X 55 . 13,266 

B.t.u. loss in floor = 0.10 X 60 X 35 X 93 ‘.. 19,530 


Total .159,223 


2. Heat required to raise product from 65 degs. F. to 
125 degs. F., 500 block per curing room. Each room to be 
raised separately from 65 to 125 degs. F., or a tempera¬ 
ture rise of 60 degs. F.: 

Lbs. 

Weight of concrete, 500 X 50 lbs.25,000 

Assume racking equipment will be 10% of block 

weight . 2,500 

Assume specific heat of soft concrete as 0.25. 

Total B.t.u. required = 27,500 X 0.25 X 60 = 412,500 B.t.u. 

A concrete block 8 by 8 by 16 ins. with two 
cores 4 by 5 ins. in section, setting on a pallet 
will have exposed to the air 760 sq. ins. of sur¬ 
face or approximately 5.28 ft. I herefore, the 
total square feet of exposed surface of concrete 
in the room equals 

Sq. ft. 

5.28 X 500 . 2,640 

Add 10% for racking equipment. 2b0 


Total 


2,900 













424 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

It is assumed the wet concrete will absorb only 

1 y 2 B.t.u. per hour per square foot per degree 
difference in temperature. 

Also assume that in bringing the product from 
65 to 125 degs. F. the air reaches 125 degs. F. in 

2 hours, while it takes the product 6 hours to 
reach 125 degs. F. This means a mean difference 
in temperature of 20 degs. between the block and 
the air in the room while both are being raised 
from 65 to 125 deg. F. 

Therefore 20 X 1-5 X 2,900 == 87.000 B.t.u. 
maximum that can be absorbed per hour by the 
product and racking equipment. 

B.t.u. required per hour = 412,500 -f- 6 = 
68,750 B.t.u. 

Inasmuch as the block can absorb under these 
assumptions 87,000 B.t.u. per hour, it is evident 
that the block will be able to absorb the 68,750 
B.t.u. which is given to it each hour. 

To raise the air in one curing room requires 

Cu. ft. 


Volume of room, 6.7 by 12 by 35. 2,814 

Volume of block and racking’ equipment. 181 

Volume of air ... 2.633 

Weight of air, 2,633 X 0.0684.180 lbs. 

Specific heat of air... .25 

B.t.u. 

B.t.u. required to raise air from 65 to 125 degs., 

180 X 0.25 X 60 . 2.700 

B.t.u. required per hour for heating air, 2,700 — 2.... 1,850 


SUMMATION OF MAXIMUM B.T.U. REQUIRED. 


B.t.u. 
per hr. 

Heat losses from rooms.150,223 

Heat required to raise products from 65 to 125 degs. 68,750 
Heat required to raise air. 1,350 


Total .229,323 

Use for figuring .230,000 

CALCULATION FOR BOILER. 

B.t.u. in steam at pressure of 10 lbs. (25 lbs. absolute 
pressure) = 1,160 B.t.u. per lb. of water. 

230,000 — 1,160 198 lbs. of steam required per hour. 

One boiler hp. is 3414 lbs. water evaporated from and at 
2 12 degs. F. 

On a practical basis use 30 lbs. of water. 

198 -T- 30 = 6.6 boiler hp. required. 

Use 15-hp. boiler. 













CURING CONCRETE 


425 


Steam for power, heat for buildings and for 
other purposes is not included in this steam 
curing problem, but should be given consideration 
in the design of a complete products plant. 

CALCULATION FOR AMOUNT OF COAL REQUIRED. 

Assuming' a boiler efficiency of 25%. B.t.u. required per 
hour = 4 X 230,€00 = 920,000 B.t.u. per hour. 

As each pound of coal has a theoretical B.t.u. of 11,000, 
coal required per hour 920,000 -f- 11,000 = 84 lbs. 

SATURATION OF AIR. 

9.5 lbs. of moisture is required to saturate 100 lbs. of air 
at 125 degs. F. 

Weight of air in one curing room = 180 lbs. 

180 X 9.5 4- 100 — 17.1 lbs. of water required to saturate 
the air in a curing room at 125 degs. F. 

As 159,223 B.t.u. are required per hour for heat losses in 
five rooms, we can assume one-fifth or 32,000 B.t.u. per 
room. This figure will be used in determining whether 
the air in a chamber will always be saturated. 

32,000 -f- 1,160 = 27.6 lbs. of steam. 

As 17.1 lbs. of steam will saturate the air, the equipment 
will be ample. 

RADIATION SYSTEM. 

Assume 2 B.t.u. per square foot of pipe per degree 
difference in temperature per hour. 

B.t.u. 

Heat loss in outside wall—6 X 35 X 0.3 X 93. 5,859 

Heat loss in inside wall when assuming the tem¬ 
perature in the empty chamber alongside will be 

50 degs.—6 X 35 X 0.3 X 75. 4,725 

Heat loss outside end wall—6.7 X 12 X 0.6 X 93. 4,486 

Heat loss inside end wall (plant at 70 degs.)— 

6.7X 12 X0.6 X 55 . 2,653 

Heat loss floor (ground at 32 degs.)—35X12X0.1X93. 3,906 
Heat loss roof—12.6 X 35 X 0.45 X 93.18,456 

Total ..29,500 

One square foot of radiation surface will 
radiate 2 B.t.u. per hour per degree difference in 
temperature. 

29,500 

Radiation required for outside wall: 5,859H-= 20.610. 

2 

20,610 

Radiation surface for outside wall:-=111 sq. ft. 

of pipe. 2 X 93 

29,500 

Radiation for inside wall: 4,725 4-= 19,476. 

2 

19,476 

Radiation surface for inside wall: -= 105 sq. ft. of 

pipe. 2 X 93 

Use U/i-in. pipe. 

Each lineal foot of l^-in. pipe equals y 3 sq. ft. radiation 
surface. 













426 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


Therefore, outside walls require 111 X 3 r 333 lin. ft. of 
pipe, or 10 lengths of pipe 35 ft. long. 

Each inside wall requires 105 X 3 = 315 lin. ft. of pipe, 
or 9 lengths. 

A 4-in. main line should be used from the 
boiler and 2-in. pipe from the main line to each 
room. The pipe lines should be designed with 
check valves so that any one of the rooms can 
be shut off or be in operation without affecting 



Curing Room Large Enough to Accommodate Four Rows 

of Racks. 


the other rooms. In order to provide the neces¬ 
sary saturation a 1^-in. pipe should be placed 
near the floor on the inner side of wall parallel 
with the length of the room running into a dead 
end. This pipe should be equipped with a spray 
opening or steam gage and air cock at intervals 
of 3 or 4 ft. With this system, the lines of pipe 
should be so arranged that the piping along the 



CURING CONCRETE 


427 


outside ends will be higher than along the inside 
ends. This will cause the condensed steam to 
flow back to the main line and into the boiler. 

As radiation boilers are not usually sold on a 
horsepower basis, it is necessary to figure 10 
sq. ft. of heating surface per hp. In other words, 
where we require a 15-hp. boiler we would re¬ 
quire a radiation boiler having 150 sq. ft. of heat¬ 
ing surface. The smallest radiation boiler sold 
by a large boiler company has a heating surface 
of 206 sq. ft. and will supply 1600 sq. ft. of 
radiating surface. 

In the problem above worked out the radiating 
surface required is only 1062 sq. ft. 

[This ends the abstract from American Concrete Insti¬ 
tute report.] 

Design of Steam Curing Room. 

Steam curing rooms usually consist of a num¬ 
ber of long, narrow chambers running parallel 
to one another and having low ceilings. These 
chambers are purposely separated from each 
other to economize on steam when it is necessary 
to heat only such chambers as may be filled with 
products. No material is better than concrete 
block, brick or tile for building curing chamber 
walls. Ceilings of curing rooms or tunnels are 
often made semi-circular in form but a system of 
saw tooth roofs for tunnels or narrow rooms is 
to be preferred so as to cause the water, which 
condenses on the roof to flow to the side wall of 
the curing chambers without dripping on the 
products below. Where arched roofs are used 
water is likely to drip from the center of the arch. 

High Pressure Steam Cylinders. 

For the profitable manufacture of concrete 
products in cold weather, an enclosed plant 
where the temperature can be maintained at not 
lower than 60 degs. F. is essential, as are properly 
equipped steam curing chambers. In one plant 
specializing largely in the manufacture of trim- 


428 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


stone and other ornamental work, the products 
are wet-cast, are left in the mold from 24 to 48 
hours, and the water used in the concrete mix¬ 
ture is a 4%' solution of calcium chloride. Dur¬ 
ing cold weather the shops are steam heated and 
kept at a temperature of 70 degs. To cure the 
products they are run into high-pressure steam 
cylinders 6 ft. in diameter and 70 ft. long. These 
cylinders are operated under a pressure around 
150 lbs. and under such conditions the products 
harden so that when 2 days old they may be 
tooled, polished or otherwise treated just as the 
hardest natural stones are worked by stone cut¬ 
ters. The actual hardening period under such 
conditions, that is with 150 lbs. pressure in the 
cylinder, is about 4 hours, to which must be 
added 2 or 3 hours required to bring the pressure 
up to 150 lbs. This results in the gradual build¬ 
ing up of temperature and pressure inside the 
curing cylinder. This method of curing concrete 
products should not be confused with the use ot 
curing tunnels, rooms or chambers which would 
not be capable of holding steam under pressure. 
No attempt should be made to build up pressure 
in the ordinary curing rooms. Only steel cylin¬ 
ders made of boiler plate in accordance with 
proper designs are capable of use in curing prod¬ 
ucts under pressure. In another plant making 
concrete brick the same system of curing is used 
but at a pressure of 70 lbs. 

It is said that the cost of installing a cylin¬ 
der of the size mentioned is about $6000. As 
the initial expense of equipment and operating is 
considerably higher than the ordinary type of 
curing room, only units or products that lend 
themselves to completely filling the cylinder 
space can be hardened economically in high- 
pressure steam cylinders. Among these products 
are brick, tile, block and similar small units. 


CURING CONCRETE 


429 


Cylinders such as described should be installed 
in pairs so as to permit utilizing steam blow-toff 
from one cylinder to the other after curing in one 
cylinder is finished, thus economizing on steam 
and hence on fuel. 

Water Curing. 

In the water curing of concrete products the 
products must be allowed to stand until initial 
hardening has progressed sufficiently to prevent 
injury to them from the application of moisture 
by spray or sprinkler. Water should be applied 
with sufficient frequency to keep the products 
practically saturated for a week or io days. The 
effect of the spraying or sprinkling will be more 
favorable if the rooms in which water curing is 
done can be kept well heated, thus adding warmth 
to moisture. 

When it is found impracticable to introduce 
water vapor into the curing chamber, products 
should be stored in a chamber where the temper¬ 
ature is not lower than 50 nor more than 100 degs. 
F. and protected from draughts of air and from 
all exposure which will tend to cause evaporation 
of moisture from the concrete until the products 
have become sufficiently hardened so that the ap¬ 
plication of water will not injure the surface. 
Products should then be kept constantly wet on 
the surface by sprinkling with water for not less 
than io days when the outside temperature does 
not fall below 50 degs. F. 

After a period of a week or 10 days of water 
curing, products may be stored out of doors to 
complete hardening, which generally will have 
progressed sufficiently to enable use of the prod¬ 
uct in its intended way after it is 1 month old. 
The advantages of steam curing are therefore 
evident in the increased output and earlier use of 
product attained by that method. 


430 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


Water is necessary for the hydration of cement 
and the cement will use a definite quantity of 
water if it is supplied. In some cases products 
have been cured by total immersion so the ce¬ 
ment would have all the water required. It is 
not recommended that all products be immersed 
but this information is given to indicate what is 
necessary in the way of water and what can be 
done to supply the water. In one instance, that 
of manufacturing concrete pile protection pipe 
sections, the sections were made semi-dry and 
very soon after being formed were rolled down 
the beach into the bay and allowed to remain 
until needed. These sections were found in ex¬ 
cellent condition whereas trouble had been ex¬ 
perienced when the sections had been air cured 
with attempts made to keep them wet by sprink- 
'ing- 

Proper curing is of vital importance. No single 
item or operation requires more care and consid¬ 
eration. It is impossible to produce products of 
good quality if improper curing methods are used. 
Disregard any statements to the contrary. 

If air curing is employed don’t spare the water 
during the first 2 weeks. Sprinkle products thor¬ 
oughly at least twice a day. If they must be put 
outdoors or under an open shed cover the piles 
with a heavy layer of clean straw and boards to 
protect products from the sun and to retard evap¬ 
oration. If blocks are piled more than 5 courses 
high place a layer of straw or hay between every 
fourth course. The hard, light colored appear¬ 
ance of products which have been insufficiently 
watered during curing is not an indication of good 
quality as is sometimes thought. 

Curing Concrete Products in Summer. 

In dry, hot weather the maker of concrete 
products should take care in curing his products. 
To spare the water is to spoil the product. Thin 


CURING CONCRETE 


431 


wall units should be protected from currents of 
dry air so the moisture content of the concrete 



Storage Piles of Concrete Block Kept Saturated with 
Water and Protected by a Canvas Cover. 


will not be evaporated but will be utilized in 
crystallizing the cement content. 

Covering with canvas or other protective mate¬ 
rial will prevent rapid evaporation. Sprinkling 
frequently will be of avail. Thick wall products 



View of a Neat Storage Yard Where Concrete Block Are 
Kept Until Ready for Delivery. 













432 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


should be sprinkled as often as necessary to keep 
the exterior surfaces damp. Where products can 
be immersed in water economically excellent re¬ 
sults will be obtained. 

Warmth and moisture are necessary for hydra¬ 
tion of the cement. During the summer months 
nature provides the necessary warmth but man 
must supply the necessary moisture either by ap¬ 
plication in the form of sprays or by immersion. 
To obtain strength in concrete the cement content 
must satisfy its affinity for water. Cement will 
not use any more water than it needs and there¬ 
fore too much sprinkling or too much immersion 
is impossible. Too early sprinkling or too early 
immersion is possible and therefore care must be 
exercised to see that sprinkling or immersion is 
commenced as soon as practicable but not too 
soon. Do not spare the water. 


CHAPTER L. 


WATERPROOFING CONCRETE 
PRODUCTS. 

There is need for waterproofing materials and 
processes. The object desired should be borne in 
mind when manufacturing concrete products that 
are desired to be waterproof. A good, well graded 
concrete mixed to a consistency approximating 
normal consistency as defined by Professor 
Abrams and cured to obtain maximum hydration 
of the cement content may be waterproof even 
against water pressures up to 100 lbs. per sq. in. 
In the manufacture of many concrete products it 
is not commercially practicable to obtain ideal 
mixtures of concrete and to cure them in the 
manner necessary for thorough hydration. 

If insufficient water is used the cement will not 
become thoroughly hydrated. If too much water 
is used a poor concrete with an excess of voids 
will be obtained. In short, water that is in excess 
of the quantity required for hydration of the ce¬ 
ment content will evaporate and the space occu¬ 
pied by the free excess water will constitute voids. 

Waterproofing of concrete products may be 
done bv one of two methods, namely, the integral 
method and the superficial method. 

Integral Method. 

The integral method embraces the use of ad¬ 
mixtures of various kinds consisting of dry pow¬ 
ders or finely pulverized materials, pastes and 
liquids. In general the dry materials act as inert 
void fillers or act as void fillers and also combine 
chemically with part of the cement. Pastes and 
liquids in general combine chemically with the ce¬ 
ment and all such compounds, whether dry, paste 



434 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


or liquid, are designed to result in compounds 
which will fill the voids caused by evaporated free 
water or to act as water repellants. 

Superficial Method. 

The superficial method embraces the uses of 
liquids, paints or solutions which are applied to 
the surface of concrete by immersion, spraying or 
brushing. The compounds used are designed to 
fill the voids by entering into chemical combination 
with the cement or the lime content of the cement, 
or may act as water repellants by reducing the 
size of the voids to such an extent as to destroy 
capillarity. 

Other superficial methods may consist of port- 
land cement grout, either plain or combined with 
other materials such as waterproofing compounds. 
Or the compounds of the paint class may be ap¬ 
plied as paints, being visible as such. The paints 
may be oil or water paints in that either oil or 
water is used as a vehicle for the pigment and 
paint base. 

Tests of the Bureau of Standards. 

The U. S. Bureau of Standards has completed 
an interesting series of tests of colorless water¬ 
proofing materials, the results of which are 
printed in their Technologic Paper 248, entitled 
“Exposure Tests on Colorless Waterproofing 
Materials,” issued Jan. 7, 1924. 

While these tests were carried out on limestone 
and sandstone, the results in most cases are 
equally applicable to the waterproofing of con¬ 
crete. This is especially true of materials which 
fill the pores of the material waterproofed by a 
mechanical action rather than a chemical com¬ 
bination between the waterproofing material and 
the masonry material. 

The test pieces were cylindrical in form, 2 ins. 


WATERPROOFING 435 

in diameter and about 2 ins. high. The specimens 
were treated with the waterproofing material in 
accordance with manufacturer’s direction. The 
treatments consisted of 20 proprietary materials, 
one proprietary process and two non-proprietary 
processes. The materials were divided into five 
general groups: 

Group 1: Petroleum distillates and fatty substances 
dissolved in mineral spirits. 

Group 2: Aluminum soap or a mixture of same with 
petroleum distillates, fatty or resinous substances dis¬ 
solved in mineral spirits, coal-tar naphtha or turpentine. 

Group 3: Materials of a varnish nature. 

Group 4: Inorganic sahs, soluble soap or glue dis¬ 
solved in water. 

Group 5: Two aqueous solutions which react with 
each other and precipitate a non-soluble substance. 

The materials in Group 1, consisting of petro¬ 
leum distillates, including paraffin and other fatty 
substances dissolved in mineral spirits, when ap¬ 
plied to stone or concrete, penetrate into the pores 
and the light, volatile solvents evaporate, deposit¬ 
ing a portion of the waxy or fatty substances in 
the pores, thus tending to seal up the pores and 
prevent the absorption of water. The materials 
in Group 2 act in a similar manner to those in 
Group 1. The resinous materials of Group 3 
penetrate the pores to a slight extent and usually 
deposit a thin film on the surface. They are really 
light varnishes. The materials in Group 4 are 
claimed to react chemically with some element in 
the stone and form pore-filling substances. In 
Group 5, the two solutions are applied individually 
and react chemically with each other, precipitating 
an insoluble substance in the pores. 

Conclusions drawn from the tests as given in 
the technologic paper of the U. S. Bureau of 
Standards are reprinted herein. It should be 
borne in mind that many of these waterproofing 
materials are equally useful for concrete and 


436 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


brick, as well as for the stones with which they 
were tested. This is especially true of the pore¬ 
filling materials which do not depend on the chem¬ 
ical reaction with the material to be waterproofed. 

Conclusions. 

The following conclusions are based upon and 
confined to the materials investigated: 

1. The most effective waterproofing materials in this 
series are those the waterproofing elements of which arc 
heavy petroleum distillates, fatty oils or insoluble soaps. 

2. The effectiveness of any waterproofing may be 
greatly influenced by the character of the pores in the 
stone. 

3. Stones having close textures are more difficult to 
waterproof than those with large pores. 

4. The treatments giving the highest waterproofing 
values and appearing to be most durable are those which 
use paraffin as the waterproofing element, either alone or 
in conjunction with other materials. The deterioration 
or loss of waterproofing value on materials of this type 
is not appreciable within a period of two years. 

5. Waterproofing materials employing resinous sub¬ 
stances as the waterproofing element are not durable. 

6. Materials consisting of aqueous solutions, the pur¬ 
pose of which is to react chemically with the stone or to 
act merefy as water repellants, have only temporary 
effects. 

7. Separate aqueous solutions which react chemically 
with each other and form insoluble substances in the 
pores of the stone give low waterproofing values and 
deteriorate rapidly. 

8. In general, those materials which gave the highest 
waterproofing values produced the greatest discolora¬ 
tions. The amount of this discoloration was propor¬ 
tional to the porosity of the stones. These discolorations 
decrease on exposure to the weather and after a year 
or more, depending upon their intensity, they are com¬ 
pensated for by the fact that the treatments tend to 
prevent the accumulation of dust and soot on the surface 
of the stone. 


CHAPTER LI 


CONCRETE MASONRY CONSTRUCTION. 

Reliable estimates show that no less than 300,- 
000,000 concrete block and concrete building tile 
were used in the United States during the year 
1922, while for 1923 the total reached the vicinity 
of 385,000,000. This tremendous increase im¬ 
pressively reflects the popularity of precast con- 



Concrete Building Units for Walls and Roof of This 
Beautiful Home Make It Durable, Attractive 
and Comfortable. 


Crete units for residences, schools, garages, 
churches and a wide variety of industrial and 
public buildings. New uses are appearing con¬ 
tinually, while the demand for concrete block and 
concrete building tile for the well established older 
uses continues to grow rapidly. 

Widely distributed factories and building mate¬ 
rial dealers carrying concrete structural products 
in stock insure ready availability of these mate- 





438 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


rials in almost every local community. Most 
manufacturers make guaranteed products, the 
quality of which is governed by the standards of 
the American Concrete Institute. 

Similar rapid expansion is found in the concrete 
brick industry. While concrete brick are exten¬ 
sively used in plain masonry, the development of 



variously colored surface textures has extended 
their use to the best types of architectural design. 
In this book concrete brick masonry will not be 
discussed as it follows closely standard practice 
in ordinary brick construction. 

The employment of concrete block and con- 





























WALLS 


439 


crete building tile simplifies the work of both de¬ 
signer and builder and gives the owner the advan¬ 
tages of rigid, permanent and maintenance-free 
construction with a saving in both the cost and 
the time required to build. The wall dimensions 
of available units lend themselves conveniently to 
any desired design and makes calculations simple. 
Concrete block and building tile lay up rapidly, 
bed firmly in the mortar and provide surfaces to 
which mortar and portland cement stucco adhere 
with great tenacity. 

Characteristics of Concrete Masonry 

Walls. 


Thickness of walls is often regulated by state 
or local building codes. A minimum thickness of 
8 ins. is usually specified for exterior or load- 



Usual Methods of Bonding Brick Veneer to Walls Having 
a Backing of Concrete Block or Building Tile. 


bearing walls. Partition and curtain walls are 
often made only 4 or 6 ins. thick and certainly 
need not exceed these dimensions if supporting 
only their own weight for short lengths with 
ordinary ceiling heights. 

The thickness of bearing walls in heavily loaded 
buildings is properly governed by the limits of 
loading. The allowable working loads on con- 















































440 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


crete block, when laid in lime-cement mortar, is 
commonly placed at one-tenth of the average 
crushing strength or, when laid in cement mortar 
at one-eighth of the average crushing strength. 
In dwellings, private garages and other small 
buildings the actual loading of the units usually 



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Mortar Joints Used in Laying Concrete Block, Building 

Tile and Brick. 


is much lower than this, frequently less than 
one twenty-fifth of the crushing strength but, as 
mentioned above, a minimum wall thickness of 
8 ins. has been commonly adhered to, regardless 
of load, largely for reasons of stability and con¬ 
venience in construction. The accompanying table 






















WALLS 


441 


of wall thicknesses found in the Columbus, O., 
building code, adopted in February; 1923, applies 
to residences and buildings up to 4 stories. It 
represents a practice generally acceptable, except 
that the 10-in. block indicated for basement walls 
in 2-story houses are often replaced by 12-in. 
block which are more readily available in some 
sections. 

THICKNESS OF WALLS (IN INCHES) OF RESI¬ 
DENCES AND BUILDINGS UP TO 4 STORIES IN 
HEIGHT WHERE COMBINED LIVE AND 
DEAD FLOOR LOADS DO NOT EXCEED 
120 LBS. PER SQ. FT. 


No. of Base- First Second Third Fourth 

stories. ment. story, story, story, story. 

1 . 8 8 

2 . 10 8 8 

3 12 12 10 S 

4 16 12 12 10 8 


Bonding with Brick Construction. 

When concrete block and tile are used as a 
backing for brick veneer, the brick wall is usually 
bonded to the backing by means of suitable metal 
strips or ties or cross bond may be obtained by 
using header courses of brick. One 8-in. course 
of concrete block equals in height three ordinary 
brick courses; one 5-in. concrete tile course equals 
in height two ordinary brick courses. 

Mortar. 

Portland cement mortar is recommended for 
laying concrete building units because of its great 
bonding power, compressive strength, density and 
resistance to weather. 

Portland cement mortar should be made with 
clean graded sand and clean water. A small 
amount of well slaked or commercially hydrated 
lime is usually added to make mortar more plastic, 
or “fat,” but the maximum quantity admissible is 
25%' by volume of the cement in the mixture 
(approximately 10% by weight, which amounts 






442 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

to about 10 lbs. of lime to each sack of cement). 
Mortar mixed in the proportion of 1 sack (1 cu. 
ft.) of portland cement to 3 cu. ft. of sand is gen¬ 
erally considered most satisfactory. It should be 
mixed thoroughly with just enough water to give 
maximum plasticity. The batches should be only 
of such size that they can be used within 30 min. 
after water is added. Retempered mortar should 
not be used. 

Colored Mortars. 

Only finely ground, pure mineral pigments are 
likely to produce thoroughly satisfactory colored 
mortars. Only pigments supplied by reliable 
manufacturers for use in cement mortar are rec- 
ommmended. The amount of mineral color should 
not exceed 10% by weight of the cement used, as 
larger quantities may affect the strength of the 
mortar. Successive batches of mortar must con¬ 
tain exactly the same proportions of cement, sand, 
coloring matter and water if exact color uniform¬ 
ity is to be maintained. A table indicating the 
mineral pigments to be used in coloring portland 
cement mortar will be found elsewhere in this 
book. The mortar used in joining face block 
preferably should be a little lighter in color than 
the block. For most pleasing effects mortar colors 
should contrast only mildly with surrounding sur¬ 
faces. Within the past few years colored cement, 
produced by specialists in this work, has been used 
extensively with results that are eminently satis¬ 
factory. Colored cement of any desired shade is 
obtainable in bags or barrels delivered ready for 
mixing with sand and water. 

Types of Mortar Joints. 

Some of the most common types of mortar 
joints are illustrated herein. The flush joint and 
the two types of struck joints are made with the 
trowel. The flush joint is used when the wall is 


WALLS 


443 


to be plastered or stuccoed. A struck joint is 
satisfactory if sloped to drain outward but is ob¬ 
jectionable if the slope is reversed, forming a 
shelf on the block below where dirt and moisture 
may collect. Beading tools are used to form con¬ 
vex and concave joints; the convex joint is orna¬ 
mental but easily broken and, therefore, not rec¬ 
ommended. The concave joint is pleasing in ap¬ 
pearance and perhaps the most generally satisfac¬ 
tory type for exposed block walls. Raked joints 
are only occasionally used in exposed block work 
and while the effect produced by a workmanlike 
job is pleasing, they afford lodgment for dirt, 
water and ice, likely to increase staining or 
streaking. 

Corner Returns. 

There are several accepted methods of making 
corner returns in block and tile construction, the 



Corner Return Made With Special Two-Core Block. 


choice being largely dependent on wall dimensions 
and the type of block or tile used. It is never 
necessary when making regular 90-deg. corners to 
cut block or fill in with brickbats and in the inter¬ 
ests of neat and workmanlike construction such 
makeshift means should be avoided. 





















444 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


Mortar joints should break at the mid joint as 
nearly as possible, even in masonry which is to 
be covered with stucco. Certain irregularities 
may be permitted in stucco construction for the 
sake of economy, since they will not appear in the 
finished work. In block work which is to be ex- 



Corner Return Made With Another Special Two-Core 

Block. 


posed (without covering of stucco) careful atten¬ 
tion must be given to regularity of the joints. 

When the construction is such that the wall 
thickness (block thickness) is equal to half the 



struction. 
































WALLS 


445 


block length, the corner block are of the same 
dimensions as standard block. It frequently hap¬ 
pens that the block thickness is greater or less 
than half the block length and in such case the 



corner may be constructed with special block. 
These specials are made reversible by inverting 
them and are very desirable types because only one 
special unit is required in each course at the cor¬ 
ner. A simple solution for the corner where the 
thickness of the wall is greater than half the block 




































446 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

length is illustrated herein. In this case the joints 
next to the corner do not break at the midpoints, 
but since the joint can be carried up consistently 
in a vertical line as long as block of the same 



Special Block of the Hydro-Stone Type Used for Corner 

Returns. 


thickness are used, the fact that it is slightly irreg¬ 
ular is hardly noticeable. This corner is made by 
regular full length corner block in each course to 
the side of which is placed a special block having 
a length equal to l */2 times a full block length, 
iess the wall thickness. 

Where 2-piece block systems are employed, cor¬ 
ners are usually constructed by means of specials 
reversed in alternate courses. 































447 


WALLS 
Footings. 

Concrete footings and foundation walls must 
have sufficient strength to support the weight of 
the building safely and without settlement. 
When the foundation serves as a basement wall, 
strength to withstand the lateral pressure of 
the soil is necessary and it must also be water¬ 
tight. In order to prevent possible upheaval by 
freezing, footings even for light structures such 
as porches or small garages must extend below 
possible frost penetration even though firm bear¬ 
ing soil is found at a shallower depth. The depth 
to which frost penetrates varies and may be as 
much as 6 ft. in sections where winters are severe. 




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Dimensions 
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Dimensions of Openings for Several Sizes of Windows 
Where 8 by 8 by 16-in. Block Are Used. 





















































448 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


Where in doubt as to frost depth, inquiry should 
be made as to common practice followed in the 
locality. 

Concrete foundations should always be laid 
upon firm, dry soil. If soft soil, loam or decaying 
matter is encountered it must be removed. Ob¬ 
viously, the bearing power of soils is quite vari¬ 
able. Some earth is so soft that it cannot safely 
be loaded with more than 1 ton per sq. ft. Hard 
gravel and well compacted clay will carry about 8 
tons to the square foot, while some rock can be 
loaded up to 100 tons. The width of the properly 
designed concrete footing should be such that the 
soil is loaded with a weight no greater than it can 
safely carry without possibility of settlement. A 
footing 18 ins. wide and 12 ins. thick is usually 
sufficient for a small residence and many com¬ 
petent designers and builders use an assumed size, 
such as this, in preference to figuring the weight 
of each house separately. However, the more 
painstaking method of procedure is to figure the 
weight in each case and establish the width of the 
footings accordingly. 

The following table indicates the safe loads for 
various soils. 


Character of Soil— 

Soft clay . 

Wet sand . 

Firm clay . 

Fine and dry sand 
Hard, dry clay .. 

Coarse sand. 

Gravel . 


Safe load per 
square foot. 

1 ton 

2 tons 

2 tons 

3 tons 

4 tons 
4 tons 
6 tons 


To calculate the proper width of footing, it is 
necessary to estimate the load to be carried (the 
weight of the building and contents) and to ascer¬ 
tain or make reasonable assumption of the bearing 
power of the soil. 


Typical Calculation for Wall Footings. 
The following example shows the method of 









WALLS 


449 


calculating the width of footing for a 2-story con¬ 
crete block residence, it being assumed that the 



Drawing Used in Connection With Foundation Plan 
Drawing for Determining Size of Footings 
for Concrete Unit Walls. 


soft clay soil has a safe bearing capacity of 1 ton 
per sq. ft. 

Combined "live” and “dead” loads are assumed 
to be as follows : 

Lbs. per sq. ft. 


First floor . 50 

Second floor . 50 

Attic floor . 20 

Roof (including wind pressure). 40 

Weight of 8-m. concrete block wall. 70 

Weight of 12-in. concrete brick wall. SO 

































450 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

No deductions are made for door and window 
openings. 



Plan Drawing Used in Connection With Sectional Draw¬ 
ing for Determining Size of Footing for 
Walls Built of Concrete Units. 


Note that the “live’’ load is the load caused by 
contents and moving objects, and wind and snow 
loads, and that the “dead” load is the weight of 
the materials of the building itself. Each must be 
computed or estimated carefully in every case. 

LOAD ON WALL FOOTING PER LINEAL FOOT. 

Lbs. 


12-in. basement wail 8 ft. high: 8 X 80 lbs. 640 

8-in superstructure walls 18 ft. high: 18 X 70 lbs_ 1260 

First and second floor loads, supported on walls 

Va span: 2 X 7 X 50 lbs. 700 

Attic floor loads, % span: 7 X 20 lbs. 140 

Roof load: Area times load divided by perimeter... 280 


Total load on wall footing per lineal foot 


0020 

















































WALLS 


451 


Since 1 sq. ft. of soft clay soil will bear 1 ton. 
(2000 lbs.) it will require approximately 1*4 sq. 
ft. to carry 3020 lbs. Therefore a footing 18 ins. 
wide is needed. A footing of this width should 
be from 9 ins. to 12 ins. deep. A good rule to 
follow in the design of footings for small build¬ 
ings is to make the depth of the footing a little 
more than *4 its width. 

CALCULATION FOR COLUMN FOOTING. 


First and second floor: 2 X 7 X 14 X 50 lbs. 9,800 

Attic floor: 7 X 14 X 20 lbs. 1,960 

Partitions . 1,000 


Total load on each column footing. 12,760 


Dividing 12,760 (lbs.) by 2000 (lbs.) the load 
which 1 sq. ft. will bear, gives 6.38 as the num¬ 
ber of square feet needed to carry the load. A 
footing 2 ft. 6 ins. square will have approximately 
the required area. This may seem a larger foot¬ 
ing than is commonly used in small houses but 
it is needed to carry the load without danger of 
settlement. Central footings with too small bear¬ 
ing area frequently cause floor settlement. 

In a similar manner the proper area of footings 
can be determined for any size of building or any 
weight. 

Making Basement Walls Watertight. 

A dry basement is a positive essential of good 
construction. For ordinary, well drained soils the 
most important precaution in building the con¬ 
crete block walls below grade is to see that joints 
•are well filled with cement mortar and carefully 
pointed. If the subsoil does not have good drain¬ 
age, a line of drain tile placed entirely around the 
outside of the footing and connected to a suitable 
outlet ' generally can be relied on to carry off 
excess water. Care should be exercised to ex¬ 
cavate to proper grade so that there will be a 
uniform slope to the tile line with no low places. 







452 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


The excavation above the tile should be filled to 
a depth of 1 to 2 ft. with gravel, cinders or some 
other materials of a porous nature through which 
water can seep easily. Back filling may then be 
completed with earth, which is well compacted 



Method of Construction Recommended to Obtain Dry 

Basements. 


and the surface sloped away from the structure. 
If for any reason it is impossible to run a line 
of tile around the outside, the tile may be placed 
on the inside of the footing and slightly below it. 
If the soil is very retentive of moisture or the 






















WALLS 


453 


water table is likely to rise much above the foot¬ 
ing, special precautions are recommended. The 
usual -treatment then is to apply to the exterior 
wall two or more coats of portland cement mortar 
mixed in the proportion of 1 sack of cement to 
2 cu. ft. of clean, well graded sand. All dirt and 
loose particles of mortar should be removed from 
the wall before the plaster is applied in order to 
obtain a strong, permanent bond. 

Another common method of waterproofing is 
to coat the exterior surface with hot tar, pitch or 
other suitable asphaltic preparation, using a broom 
or fibre brush. The wall must be clean and abso¬ 
lutely dry when this coating is applied or it may 
not adhere perfectly. The plaster treatment is 
generally the more satisfactory. In extremely wet 
soils builders sometimes use both treatments, ap¬ 
plying the asphaltic preparation on the plaster 
coating after it has hardened and the surface be¬ 
comes' dry. Deep basements and pits located 
below the water level present special problems 
requiring individual solution. 

Basement Partitions. 

Basement partitions of concrete block or tile 
are recommended for carrying the weight of the 
floors and interior partitions as preferable to 
beams and columns, although for wide spans and 
heavy structures the latter are obviously neces¬ 
sary. The rigid support afforded by interior 
masonry walls insures that there will be prac¬ 
tically no settlement of floors or interior parti¬ 
tions and consequently little if any cracking of 
plaster or loosening of interior trim. Such walls 
afford fireproof enclosures for heating equipment 
and fuel, confine steam, moisture and odors and 
provide insulation for fruit, vegetable or other 
perishables. 

Concrete block and tile are much used for both 


454 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

load-bearing and non-load-bearing partition walls, 
also for fire-wall enclosures. Standard units are 
used for load-bearing walls while special units 
from 4 to 6 ins. thick are often used for partition 
walls that do not carry loads other than their 
own weight. 

Setting Door and Window Frames. 

Door and window frames are usually built into 
the walls as the latter are laid. The frames should 




be well bedded and pointed in mortar. In high 
class work they are often caulked with oakum 
before pointing. 

Door and window jamb block and tile are sup¬ 
plied to fit plank and box frames of all common 
designs and constitute one of the many conveni¬ 
ent features of concrete masonry construction. By 
using these jamb block it is possible to make ab¬ 
solutely tight connections around the frames, ex¬ 
cluding wind and water. Typical window jamb 
block for box frames are shown on this page. 

























































WALLS 


455 


Outside Fixtures. 

At the time con¬ 
crete block or tile are 
laid, provision 
should be made for 
attaching down¬ 
spout brackets, tele¬ 
phone and electric 
service wires and 
other house fixtures 
on the outside of the 
masonry walls. If the 
location of these fix¬ 
tures cannot be de¬ 
termined as the walls 
are being built, it will 
be necessary to drill 
holes later. A sim¬ 
ple manner to pro¬ 
vide for such con¬ 
nections is to place 
short lengths of 
small lead pipe in the 
mortar joints into 
which expansion 
bolts may later be 
inserted. These in¬ 
serts should extend 
outward so as to be 
flush with the fin¬ 
ished stucco, when 
used. If pipe inserts 
are flattened out and 
care is used, ordin¬ 
ary wood screws 
will hold. Several 
companies manufac¬ 
ture screw anchors 
for masonry walls. 



Details of Standard Reinforced 
Concrete Lintels. 











































































456 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 
Lintels and Sills. 


Precast lintels are generally more convenient 
and economical than lintels cast in place except 
possibly over wide spans where there may be a 
saving in clamping forms to the wall and casting 
the lintel in place. Lintels are usually made the 
same height as the block courses. For example, 
if block 8 ins. high and 8 ins. wide are used, 
lintels are made 8 by 8 ins. in cross-section and 
their length exactly equal to the wall length of 
one or more block. These lintels may be larger 



and stronger than required to carry the load in 
most cases but the standardization of lintel sizes 
is a very great convenience in ordering and saves 
the time and the labor otherwise required to fit 
block around lintels of special dimensions. Rein¬ 
forcement is always placed in lintels spanning 
openings of more than 3 ft., the steel bars being 
located about 1 in. above the bottom. Two y 2 - in. 




































































WALLS 


457 


bars are needed for a 4-ft. span and three for a 
5-ft. span. 

For use in connection with hollow block walls 
to be furred and lathed on the inside, 1-piece 
lintels having the same thickness as the wall are 
obtainable. For walls with a continuous air space 
for insulation, where interior plaster is to be ap¬ 
plied directly to the masonry, lintels are “split” 
or made in two pieces to provide an air space 
between inner and outer sections. As a precau¬ 
tion, metal flashing may be placed over window 
heads in continuous air space walls, to guide con¬ 
densed water away from the opening. 

Precast lintels are regularly given all the sur¬ 
face finishes common to concrete block using the 
same process of manufacture. Lintels cast in the 
wall can be made to match block by using similar 
facing aggregate in a thin layer of concrete next 
to the outside face. After forms are removed, 
the aggregate can be exposed by scrubbing with 
water or acid solutions or the surface can be 
tooled. No special surface treatment is necessary 
when the surface is to be stuccoed. 

Window sills are usually 4 ins. thick and are 
placed on the top of a course of block. The height 
of the opening into which the frames must fit is, 
therefore, either 4 ins. or 8 ins. 

The size of stock window frames is determined 
by the size of the glass in the sash. This often 
necessitates using a frame that will not suit the 
height of the block opening. To take care of this 
the window sill may be increased in thickness for 
frames that are shorter than the required height 
or a rebate may be formed in the precast lintel to 
accommodate longer frames. 

Window sills are usually precast like lintels. 
They should have a steep “wash” or slope to the 
weather. They should project at least 2 ins. from 
the face of the wall and have a groove on the 


458 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


underside to form a “drip” to keep water from 
flowing over onto the face of the wall. They are 
often set at the time the wall is built; a better 
practice is to insert “slip sills'’ after the wall has 
been laid up. If built in, the joint below the sill 
should be left open and pointed up or filled after 
the wall has had a chance to settle as otherwise 
the slightest movement will crack the sill. 

Chimney Construction. 

Several common types of concrete chimney 
block are shown in an accompanying illustration. 
Good chimneys, whether located on the interior 
or exterior of the buildings, always rest on solid 
concrete footings extending well below maximum 
frost penetration and of sufficient width and thick¬ 
ness to carry the weight of the chimney without 
danger of settlement. Chimneys should never be 
carried upon wooden floor beams or iron brackets 
or hung from rafters, joists or other wooden 
members. When the chimney forms a part of the 
wall of the house, the chimney block must be se¬ 
curely bonded into it. Chimneys will operate 
better if carried at least 2 ft. above the ridge of 
sloping roofs, and in cases of flat or nearly flat 
roofs, at least 3 ft. above. 

Cement mortar mixed in the proportion of 1 
part cement tci 2 parts sand is recommended for 
chimney construction and the block should be 
damp when laid so as to develop a strong bond 
and tight joists. Flue lining, extending the en¬ 
tire height of the flue and breaking joints with 
the chimney block, affords added fire protection. 
Flue lining is required in many cities. 

Fireplaces. 

Concrete fireplaces have the beauty, the dig¬ 
nity and the individuality which make them de¬ 
sirable in the better classes of homes. They may 


FIREPLACES 


459 


be constructed of concrete brick having any color 
tone or surface texture desired, or they may be 
built of concrete block or special concrete units, 
according to the architect’s design. 

Careful proportioning of the fireplace opening 
is necessary for successful operation. The fol- 



Chimneys and Fireplaces. 

lowing dimensions of openings are considered 
good practice: 




















































































































460 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

COMMON DIMENSIONS FOR FIREPLACE OPENINGS. 
Width Ins. Height Ins. Depth Ins. 

32 28 17 to 21 

3G 2S to 30 21 

4S 32 21 to 25 

The rear wall of the fireplace should be arched 
or curved forward to form a wind shelf which 
deflects down drafts from the chimney and pre¬ 
vents dust and soot from being- blown into the 



1 

Wood- 

- 







1 , ,2 



± 

11 


J.L 

1 



Alternate Designs for Fireplaces Providing for Use of 

Concrete. 


room. A damper should be placed in the throat 
for regulation of draft. 

Successful practice requires the inside area of 
flues to be not less than 1/10 of the area of the 
fireplace opening. Thus for a fireplace 30 ins. 
wide and 27 ins. high, the area of the opening is 
810 sq. ins. The flue area should not be less than 


































































































































































































WALL DETAILS 


461 


1/10 of 810, or 81 sq. ins. An 8 by 12-in. flue 
will be satisfactory. 

Each fireplace, stove and furnace should have 
its own individual flue carried full size to the top 
of the chimney. Immediately above the damper 
the sides of the opening are corbelled to the size 
of flue opening. It is essential that the flue rise 
directly over the center of the fireplace for at least 
2 or 3 ft.; it may then be corbelled over to the 
location desired. Sharp bends in the flue should 
be avoided. 

Belt Courses. 


Belt courses project from the face of the wall 
usually at grade line floor level, or higher up on 




Special Block and Methods of Finishing Walls at Grade 

Line. 


the structure, for protection against the weather 
or for ornamentation. They may be constructed 
of special, precast units, of standard block set out 
(and covered with stucco), or of monolithic con¬ 
crete. A course of block set out at the first floor 
level to form the water table provides bearing 
space behind it on which joists are conveniently 
set. 

Methods of Supporting Wood Floors. 

An additional feature of great value and con¬ 
venience is the joist block which provides rigid 
seating for wood floor joists. Where hollow block 













































462 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


of a length equal to the joist spacing are used, the 
optional method, veneer block are commonly used 
on the outside of the wall and corresponding block 
shortened to the distance between joists used on 




Special Joist Block Where Two Block Are Used to Make 

the Wall Thickness. 


the inside. This latter construction for the joist 
courses is quite flexible, and is equally adaptable 
for use with various types of block and any spac¬ 
ing of joists. When it is convenient to change the 














































WALL DETAILS 


463 


courses in which the joists are set usually take 
specials of the same shape as normals except for 
a notch cut out of each end or in some cases out 
of one end, to form space for the joist. As an 
optional method, veneer block are commonly used 
on the outside of the wall and corresponding block 
shortened to the distance betwen joists used on 
the inside. This latter construction for the joist 
courses is quite flexible, and is equally adaptable 
for use with various types of block and any spac¬ 
ing of joists. When it is convenient to change the 


% j L 15 % j| ^ 


-* 

===== 



n.JSTCT —r - 

■ 

a b 






■/ ' A 1 







16" o C 

16" o c 


-j- 


_ L. 


D- 


Special Joist Block Where One Air Space Only Is Left 

in a Two-Hole Block. 



Method of Supporting Concrete Floor on Two-Piece Type 

of Wall. 


wall thickness at the joist level, joists are set upon 
the shoulder or ledge formed by the thicker walk 
























































464 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


Underwriters demand a “fire cut” on the end 
of joists built into the wall so that in case of fire 
causing the collapse of a wood floor, the joists 
can fall out of the wall without endangering the 
stability of the wall. 

Where wooden floors are used in the building, 
it is advisable to have a cement plaster on metal 
lath ceiling over rooms wherein are located heat¬ 
ers, boilers or stoves of any kind. Ceilings so 
protected have been found on test to resist a fire 
of more than average intensity for over an hour, 
thus adding materially to the fire protection af¬ 
forded to the building, and giving the building a 
preferred insurance classification. 

Support of Concrete Floors. 

A common method of supporting concrete floors 
on concrete block exterior walls is shown in the 
accompanying illustration. Expanded metal fabric 
or wire mesh is laid over the exposed openings in 
the block to prevent the concrete from filling the 




Eave Details. 

air spaces below. The floor rests upon the inner 
half of the horizontal wall section, veneer block 
being placed on the outer edge leaving a small con¬ 
tinuous air space between veneer block and floor 
slab. The floor should not extend over the entire 
width of the wall. If exposed on the exterior, the 
slab is likely to detract from the appearance of 





























WALL DETAILS 


465 


the wall and in case stucco is applied, cracks may 
be expected to appear should the slab expand or 
contract. Each individual door presents special 
problems of design and construction, depending 
on loading, span and other factors and therefore 
should be designed by a competent structural 
engineer. 

Several pleasing types of concrete floor finishes 
have been developed. Concrete floor tile of va- 



■Ti'te. felt roofing paper 



-Portlaod cement 
stucco on tmtal 
lath 


filled with concrete or 
special gable block to 
provide surface for stucco 


Verge Details. 


rious sizes, colors and patterns are now produced 
by many concrete products plants and are avail¬ 
able in almost every locality. The popular terrazzo 
finish is made by placing on the floor proper a 
surface layer of concrete about lj/2 ins. thick 
made up of a decorative mixture of portland 
cement and marble chips and other colored aggre¬ 
gates. After this has hardened sufficiently, it is 
ground with a hand or motor driven carborundum 
grinder and polished to expose the aggregates, a 



































466 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


very attractive texture resulting. A less expen¬ 
sive and equally appropriate treatment for stair 
halls, kitchen, bed rooms, bath rooms and closets, 
consists of rubbing the common concrete floor 
surface with a carborundum stone to remove little 
projections and coating the entire rubbed surface 
with a reliable concrete enamel. 

Gable Construction. 

Concrete block and brick walls should not stop 
at the plate level but should be continued up in 
the gable ends of the building. Where walls are 
constructed of faced units, special triangular cut 
block are required at the ends of the gable 
courses, but when the surfaces are to be stuccoed 
the triangular openings may be filled with mono¬ 
lithic concrete. Verge boards are sometimes made 
wide enough to cover up these openings but this 
practice is not recommended. 

Attachment of Sills and Plates. 

The usual method of attaching wood sills and 
plates to concrete unit walls is to bolt them down 
at intervals, 6 ft. apart or less, to the top courses. 
Bolts should be about 10 ins. long with nuts and 
large washers inserted in the air cells of the block 
and filled around with concrete to insure firm 
anchorage. This method is much more workman¬ 
like and generally satisfactory than spiking sills 
or plates to wall through mortar joints. 

Furring and Lathing. 

It is customary to “fur out” before applying 
plaster to the walls of buildings of all masonry 
materials, and this should ordinarily be done 
where concrete block are used. 1 A continuous ait- 
space usually affords sufficient insulation so that 
plaster is about the same temperature as the inside 
air, preventing condensation. Special nails and 


LNot necessary on cinder concrete block walls. 



FURRING AND LATHING 


467 


screws have been devised for attaching furring 
strips. Sometimes small pieces of wood, often 
lath, are laid in the mortar joint flush with inside 
wall surface to afford facilities for nailing the 
strips. Furring need be attached only every three 
or four courses in height. 

Prepared insulating materials, such as sheet 



All Masonry Walls Except Cinder Concrete Block Walls 
Should Have the Plaster Furred Out from the 
Inner Wall Surface as Indicated. 


cork, flax fibre, dried seaweed, etc., are sometimes 
used to line the interior wall making it unneces¬ 
sary to fur out the plaster. Many of these can 
have plaster applied directly to them without the 
use of lath. 

In types of concrete block construction which 
provide a continuous air space in the wall and 

















































468 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


Co ncrtH roofing tiU.- 

Fllled with concrete or special 
<jobl« block to provide 
eurfoce for slvcco. 



% strip 
% strip 


Portlood ctwtnf , 
stucco on metal loth; 


bolts spaced 4-0 o.C. 

Fill cell of block with 
Concrete where bolt occurs. 


^rTurrinej stripe 
— Loth & plaster 



Frtcaat jilt 



TorllaoJ 
cement stucco 


’4 


Precast Hotel- 


SlM 


Second floor line- 


S' joist 



Precast sill - 



first floor line - 


Precast lintel- 


'-M-. E"» 10* joist 

_ 


Precast' Sill- 
Grade tine -3 


V- 1 



Basement floor line- i| 




.v 9 p o . s. 

. o;. * .. r ■* .•» . *.' ■ 


*rn 


In This Wall Good Practice Has 
Been Observed Throughout 
the Design. 


where split sills and 
lintels are used, 
plaster usually may 
be applied directly 
to inner surfaces 
of exterior walls. 
Even under these 
conditions, furring 
and lathing may be 
advisable in severe 
climates in order 
to conserve heat. 
For all other types 
of concrete block 
construction, plaster 
should be furred 
out where placed 
on the walls of 
residences and oth¬ 
er buildings to be 
continually occu¬ 
pied. In localities 
w here experience 
has proven that it is 
safe to plaster di¬ 
rectly on brick, tile, 
or concrete walls, 
or for less impor¬ 
tant structures such 
as garages, indus¬ 
trial and farm 
structures where 
the atmosphere is 
generally dry and 
the possibility of a 
little condensation 
is of minor conse¬ 
quence, plaster, if 
used at all. is ap- 









































































































PROTECTING WALLS 


469 


plied directly to the block. Care should be taken 
to obtain a good bond with the block. 

Cleaning Faced Block Walls 

After the wall is completed it should be 
scrubbed with a stiff fibre or wire brush and 
water, if it has been soiled or stained during con¬ 
struction. Serious stains may require scrubbing 
with a solution of muriatic acid varying in 
strength from about one part acid in three parts 
water to one part acid in eight parts water. The 
solution should be allowed to remain on the sur¬ 
face until it stops bubbling. It should then be 
removed by thoroughly washing with clean water. 

Protection During Construction. 

Concrete art stone sills and ornamental work, 
as well as protruding and especially exposed por¬ 
tions of walls, should have suitable protection dur¬ 
ing construction. A covering of building paper 
does not afford sufficient protection under most 
circumstances. When projecting portions of the 
work are exposed to unusual danger of breakage 
or marring, they should be boxed-in. 

Concrete art stone sills and ornamental work 
should be handled with the same degree of care 
and given the same protection that is ordinarily 
given to cut stone. Although damaged concrete 
can be repaired, considerable skill and experience 
is required to match original work. Clean wall 
and unsoiled and undamaged building trim are 
indications of skill and superior workmanship 
which are of high advertising value to the builder. 


CHAPTER LII. 


STUCCO ON CONCRETE BLOCK AND 

TILE. 

Concrete block and concrete building tile pro¬ 
vide an ideal backing for portland cement stucco. 
Block and tile to be used for this purpose are 
manufactured with a rough, coarse texture to 
provide a good key or mechanical bond for the 
stucco, and a certain suction which aids in apply¬ 
ing the stucco and holds it permanently as an 
integral part of the wall. 

Where stucco is to be applied to concrete ma¬ 
sonry, mortar joints should be cut flush with 
the surface. Immediately before applying the first 
coat of stucco, dust and loose particles should be 
brushed off and the wall dampened. Two coats 
of portland cement stucco, the first coat of which 
is doubled, are sufficient when applied on concrete 
block or tile backing. 

Portland Cement Stucco Mixture. 

Portland cement stucco mixture in the propor¬ 
tion of 1 sack (1 cu. ft.) of cement to 3 cu. ft. 
of sand or stone is considered most satisfactory 
for all coats. Leaner mixtures may prove porous 
while richer mixtures are avoided in order to pre¬ 
vent the fine hair lines known as surface crazing. 
Hydrated or well slaked lime is sometimes added 
to give the mixture greater plasticity but the 
amount should never exceed 10 lbs. for each sack 
of cement. Exactly the same proportions of 
cement, sand and water, coloring matter and any 
other ingredients must be used in successive 
batches for the same coat in order to give the 
finished surface a uniform appearance. Sand 
should be clean, well graded and pass through a 
screen with 8 meshes to the linear inch. 



STUCCO 


471 


In making cement mortar, cement and sand 
should first be mixed together dry, preferably 
with a machine mixer, until the mixture is of 
uniform color throughout. Then only enough 
water should be added to produce, after thorough 
mixing, a mortar that is plastic and workable. 
Batches so large that they cannot be applied in 30 
min. are undesirable for the mortar will probably 
become too stiff in which case the plasterer may 



Sponge Finish Stucco. 


Torn Float Stucco. 








472 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


want to add more water (retempering) which is 
not recommended. Mortar that has stiffened 
should not be used. 

Application of Stucco to Block Surface. 

Carry on the plastering in one general direction 
without allowing mortar to dry along working 
edges. The first coat should be forcibly trowelled 
into the wall surface to obtain a firm bond. In 






Floated Rough Cast Stucco. Rough Floated Stucco. 





STUCCO 


473 


two-coat work, when the ‘"scratch" coat has been 
applied, it preferably should be followed by a 
second application of mortar as soon as it is stiff 
enough. This is called “doubling." The surface 
of the first coat should be roughened or scratched 
before it hardens to provide key for the finish 
coat. Keep the first coat wet for several days by 
carefully applying water at intervals (as soon as 
mortar has hardened enough so that it will not 



Special Textural Stucco. Sand Floated Stucco. 














474 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

wash). The finish coat is usually not applied until 
the previous coat has been on at least a week. The 
finish coat should average not less than Y i n - i n 
thickness. When applied directly to block, the 
combined thickness of all coats should average not 
Jess than Y in. 

Color Pigments in Stucco and Concrete. 

Pigments are employed for coloring concrete 
products and concrete surfaces when the desired 
shades are not readily obtainable by using colored 
aggregates. However, only mineral pigments 
should be used, as organic pigments are unstable 
and fade when exposed to the sun. 

A general guide to the selection of colors and 
coloring materials to obtain various effects 
follows: 

For Blue shades, from light to bright shade, use 
Prussian Blue or Ultramarine Blue. 

For Browns use Burnt Umber or Brown Oxide 
of Iron. 

For Buffs use Yellow Ochre or Oxide. 

For Grays use small quantities of Manganese 
Black or Germantown Lamp Black. 

For Greens use Greenish Blue Ultramarne or 
Green Oxide of Chrome. A mixture of yellow 
Oxide and Ultramarine Blue will also produce a 
satisfactory green pigment. 

For Pinks use small quantities of Red Oxide of 
Iron. 

For Red shades such as light brick, terra cotta, 
etc., use Red Oxide of Iron. 

For Slate effects, from light to dark blue slate, 
use Manganese Black or Germantown Lamp 
Black. 

Variations in the color of the cement, aggre¬ 
gates and in the pigments themselves, are such 

as to make color formulas only approximate. The 
most satisfactory method of determining the 
amount of coloring pigment to use is by experi¬ 
ment or trial. After selecting the primary color 


STUCCO 


475 

desired the proportion of coloring matter to 
cement to produce the exact shade may be de¬ 
termined by preparing a number of small mortar 
panels which should be made of the same mate¬ 
rials and proportions as are intended to be used 
in the actual work. The shade and color selected 
may be duplicated in the actual work by keeping 
a record of the per cent by weight of color pig- 



Section of Block Wall, Showing Bare Block, Scratch Coat 
and Finish Coat of Stucco. 


ment used, based on the cement content. The 
proportion of cement, water and aggregate should 
be kept constant. Store the color samples made 
under moist conditions for about 5 days; avoid 
placing them in direct sunlight until they have 
thoroughly hardened. Bear in mind that panels 
have a darker shade when damp than when dry. 

In no case should the amount of color pigment 




476 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


exceed 10% of the weight of the cement used. In 
other words, do not use more than 9 lbs. of color 
to 1 sack of cement (94 lbs.). The addition of 
larger amounts is likely to reduce the strength of 
the resulting mixture. 

White portland cement should be used to ob¬ 
tain the more delicate shades of the lighter colors 
and for all white finishes. When clear white is 
desired white sand should be used in the mortar, 
proportioned 1 part of white portland cement to 
3 parts of white sand. The use of white portland 
cement with yellow and brown sands will produce 
varying shades of cream, yellow and bufif. This 
may be determined by making trial panels with 
these materials. Prepared colored portland ce¬ 
ment is on the market and is used to good advan¬ 
tage in stucco work. Prepared portland cement 
stuccos are also obtainable. 


CHAPTER Till. 


COST OF MASONRY WALLS. 

The chief economy in concrete block wall con¬ 
struction is in the labor and mortar required to 
lay them. The following figures are typical of 
the savings that are made by building with con¬ 
crete block. They should be corrected to corre¬ 
spond with local costs when applying them to any 
local situation. 

These figures show that it costs 33% more to 
build an 8-in. brick wall than a concrete block wall 
of the same thickness, and a 12-in. brick wall 
costs 40% more than a 12-in. concrete block wall. 
The figures quoted are for straight run of wall 
using portland cement mortar and do not include 
staging, cleaning down, etc., which will be the 
same for either type. By substituting the rates 
of pay prevailing in different localities and the 
costs of materials available these figures can be 
adjusted for any locality. 

The averages of 1200 and 1000 brick a day are 
based on a combination of smooth brick work, 
that is face work and the backing up brick. In 
laying face brick such as pressed brick or brick 
of high quality requiring careful workmanship the 
brick masons will average about 300 to 500 brick 
a day. More often the average of 300 will be 
found to be correct. In the days before the 
World War the ordinary brick mason could lay 
2000 or more common brick a day. In these 
times, where the demand is great for skilled 
workmen for building construction, the brick ma¬ 
sons have reduced their output on common brick 
to as low as 600 brick a day, according to the 
statement of a Chicago builder. Therefore any 
estimates on cost of masonry walls should be made 



478 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

only after the estimator has information regard¬ 
ing the efficiency of labor in the district in which 
the work is to be done. 

COMPARATIVE COST OF MASONRY WALLS IN 

PLACE. 


Cost of 100 sq. ft—12-in. brick wall— 

1950 brick at $18 per M.$35.10 

27 cu. ft. of mortar at 40 cts.. 10.80 

Labor (1200 brick per day)— 

Masons, 13 hours at $1.25. 16.25 

Tenders, 16.2 hours at 75 cts. 12.20 


Total cost per 100 sq. ft.. $74.35 

Total cost per sq. or cu. ft.... . .74 

Cost of 100 sq. ft.—12-in. concrete block wall— 

110 concrete block at $340 per M.$37.40 

7.7 cu. ft. of mortar at 40 cts.. . 3.08 

Labor (140 block per day)— 

Masons, 6 hours at $1.25...,.. 7.50 

Tenders, 6 hours at 75 cts.- ......... 4.50 


Total cost per 100 sq. ft.- $52.48 

Total cost per sq. or cu. ft... .52 y 2 

Cost of 100 sq. ft.—8-in. brick wall— 

1300 brick at $18 per M.$23.40 

18 cu. ft. mortar at 40 cts. 7.20 

Labor (1000 brick per day)— 

Masons, 10.4 hours at $1.25. 13.00 

Tenders, 13 hours at 75 cts. 9.75 


Total cost 100 sq. ft.,. . . $53.35 

Total cost per sq. ft. .53 

Total cost per cu. ft. .80 

Cost of 100 sq. ft.—8-in. concrete block wall— 

110 block at $250 per M.$27.50 

5 cu. ft. mortar at 40 cts.. . 2.00 

Labor (175 block per day)— 

Masons, 5 hours at $1.25. 6.25 

Tenders, 5 hours at 75 cts. 3.75 


Total cost per 100 sq. ft. $39.50 

Total cost per sq. ft. .39*4 

Total cost per cu. ft. .60 


From these figures, which are conservative, it 
will be seen- that though the concrete block costs 
a little more than an equivalent volume of brick 
the large saving in mortar and laying make its 
use very profitable to the builder. In this compu¬ 
tation brick has been given a price spread which is 
conservative and brick masons have been credited 
with a high average number of brick laid per day. 
The number of block laid per day is a minimum 
and is generally exceeded from 10 to 30%. 
































CHAPTER LIV. 


CINDER CONCRETE PRODUCTS. 

Section 1, F. J. Straub Patent. 

A patent was issued Jan. 16, 1917, to F. J. 
Straub by the U. S. Patent Office on concrete 
products composed of run of boiler cinders, port- 



F. J Straub Demonstrating That Cinder Concrete Block 
Can Be Laid Up in Walls with Neat Mortar Joints. 


land cement and water. This patent has been 
sustained in the U. S. Circuit Court of Appeals 
for the third circuit. 

More than 50 licensed plants are engaged in 
manufacturing concrete building units, including 
block, tile and brick, and the products are general¬ 
ly popular with architects, builders and masons. 





















480 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

Fire tests were conducted at the Underwriters 
Laboratories, Chicago, Feb. 1 and 2, 1922. Fol¬ 
lowing are extracts taken from the report of the 
Laboratories which bears file reference “Retard¬ 
ant No. 1429.” 

Cinder concrete block submitted to the fire test were 
made in accordance with specifications covered by patent 
controlled by F. J. Straub. The block were made by a 
licensee and are such as are used for exterior and 
interior walls. Block were laid in portland cement 
mortar with the cores, or air spaces, vertical thereby 
following the practice common in concrete block wall 
construction. Block were nominally 8 by 8 by 16 ins. 
The actual length and height of the block are slightly 
less than the nominal dimensions to allow for mortar 
joints. Concrete was composed of 1 volume of cement 
to 6 volumes of cinders. 

Claims Made for the Block. 

The submittor, F. J. Straub, presented the following 
claims together with a statement that in January, 1917, 
he was granted United States Letters Patent, No. 
1,212,840, covering broadly the method of manufactur¬ 
ing such building block. 

Straub block 8 by 8 by 1G ins. weigh 32 lbs. One block 
displaces more than 12 common brick weighing 72 lbs. 

Initiah cost of Straub block, delivered, is one-half of 
the cost of the usual run of brick. The cost of laying is 
one-third that of laying brick, for less labor is employed 
and less mortar used. 

They are tough and not brittle. If they fall, they do not 
break. They stand shipping. They can be laid in cold 
and wet weather. They can be cut to fit any space, abso¬ 
lutely without waste. 

On brick walls and sand concrete walls, furring strips, 
to provide air spaces, and laths are required and lathing 
is necessary for wood walls if walls are to be plastered. 
Plaster is applied directly on Straub block and .locks 
firmly. Nails can be driven into cinder concrete block 
walls anywhere and they hold. Base and jamb block 
and nailing strips are unnecessary. 

Cinder building block are especially adapted to stucco 
exterior finish. The surface of the * block has a great 
affinity for stucco or other like coating material. The 
stucco does not crack or fall off. 

The insulating quality of the cinder building block 
makes the house warm in winter and cool in summer. 

They are sound-proof. Because of this fact the block 
are especially adapted for partition walls in apartment 
houses, business buildings, schools, hospitals and all 
public buildings. 

Their inexpensiveness, speed in erection and durabilitv 
make Straub building block very desirable for factorv 
construction. 


CINDER PRODUCTS 481 

Conclusions. 

Fire Retardant Properties: Straub cinder concrete 
block constructed of the materials and by the methods 
described in this report, can be employed for the con¬ 
struction of exterior or interior walls, bearing or non¬ 
bearing, which when exposed to fire on either side will 
prevent the passage of flame through the wall and func¬ 
tion as a barrier to the spread of fire by heat conduction 
for at least 2^2 hrs. Applications of a hose stream to 
either side of the wall during the first hour of fire ex¬ 
posure will not seriously impair its fire resistance. 

No flame passage occurred during the fire endurance 
test and no through openings were found. The critical 
temperature of 300 degs. F. was reached on the unex¬ 
posed face at 2 hrs. 58 mins. 

Practicability: The block may be shipped in bulk 
without material injury. They may be handled without 
difficulty and installed rapidly by any competent brick¬ 
layer using ordinary tools. 

In a half carload shipment of the block from York, 
Pa., to the Chicago freight house, and thence by motor 
truck to the Laboratories, the amount o'f damage was 
negligible. Each of the two 10 by 11-ft. test walls 
erected at the Laboratories was completed in about 
2 y 2 hrs. 

Durability: The block are capable of withstanding 
long continued exposure to weather conditions without 
material deviation. No visible deterioration was caused 
by freezing, thawing and drying tests. Block submitted 
to these tests showed an average crushing strength of 
750 lbs. per sq. in. and a minimum of 580 lbs. per sq. in. 
of gross sectional area. These values may be compared 
with the average of 815 lbs. per sq. in. and the minimum 
of 650 lbs. per sq. in. in the case of block that had not 
been saturated. It is believed that these differences are 
not significant in view of the characteristic variations 
in compressive strength commonly shown by tests of 
concrete products. 

Strength: The strength of the block is sufficient to 
warrant their use in bearing and non-bearing walls with¬ 
in the limitations commonly recognized as applying to 
materials of this character. 

In general concrete block are considered suitable only 
for buildings of moderate height and with type of floor 
construction and of occupancy that will impose loads on 
the wall well within the safe limits for Straub block. 

It is believed that there is not thus far any generally 
accepted specification regarding the crushing strength 


482 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


of cinder concrete block. The building code recom¬ 
mended by the National Board of Fire Underwriters 
states that “the average compressive strength for con¬ 
crete block when tested with the cells vertical shall be 
not less than 800 lbs. per sq. in.” The block forming 
the subject of this report had an average crushing 
strength of 815 lbs. per sq. in. 

The effects of the impact test were purely local. The 
wall as a whole was apparently not impaired. 

Uniformity: The block can be produced commercial¬ 
ly with the degree of uniformity sufficient for the pur¬ 
poses for which the material is intended. 

The dimensions of the block are determined by the 
dimensions of the forms in which they are cast. Den¬ 
sity and compressive strength are subject to variation 
within rather wide limits. In the case of the block 
employed in the examination and tests described in this 
report, all being the product of the same plant, exami¬ 
nation of 12 block showed weights varying from 16 to 
25%. Compression tests showed ultimate crushing 
strength varying from 650 to 1140 lbs. per sq. in. of 
gross sectional area. The cinders employed in the mixing 
of the concrete were of rather inferior grade with 18 to 
19% of combustible material, the presence of unburned 
coal or coke being evident on visual examination. Ap¬ 
proximately 40% by weight of the cinders passed a 
20-mesh sieve. The results of the tests made on block 
employing this inferior aggregate and a rather small 
proportion of cement, were so favorable, notwithstand¬ 
ing the variation in some important properties, as to 
justify the opinion that the variations noted are within 
permissible limits. 

Reco m me nd ation. 

It has been recommended to the fire council Under¬ 
writers’ Laboratories that Straub cinder block found by 
tests of the Underwriters’ Laboratories to have proper¬ 
ties equivalent to those possessed by the block examined 
and tested be given a fire retardant classification of 
R 2U hrs. 

Performance in Service. 

Straub block in service prove the claims of 
F. J. Straub to be true. In addition to the official 
fire tests conducted at the Underwriters’ Labora¬ 
tories fire demonstrations have proved the fire 
resistance of cinder concrete block when subjected 
to fires such as occur daily in America. The 


CINDER PRODUCTS 


483 


block have also given service under unusual serv¬ 
ice conditions as evidenced by the following ar¬ 
ticle which appeared in the August 1923 issue of 
Concrete Products. 

Furnace Walls of Cinder Block. 

Straub cinder concrete building block obtained 
a 2^4-hour fire resistance rating recommendation 
at the Underwriters’ Laboratories, Inc., Chicago. 



A Glass Furnace Built of Straub Cinder Concrete Block 
Including the Block for the Chimney. 









484 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


Now comes the news that Straub block made at 
Monaca, Pa., by the Beaver Building Block Co. 
have been used successfully for furnace walls. 
More than a year ago the American Glass Spe¬ 
cialty Co. built a furnace of these units and were 
so well pleased that five more furnaces have since 
been built. In a letter on the subject, P. A. 
Napoli, manager of the Beaver Block Co., wrote 
to the editor of Concrete Products as follows: 

The Editor: I am in receipt of your letter dated 
May 1, 1923, and the thought came to me of turning 
your letter over to M. Miksch, president and general 
manager of the American Glass Specialty Co., and have 
him write you and des'eribe the construction and the 
results they have obtained from the decorating kilns that 
were built of our 4 by 8 by 16-in. cinder concrete block. 
That he has done, as he gave me a copy of the letter 
sent you. In addition to that, I have had two of the 
kilns photographed and I am forwarding you a print of 
each kiln to better illustrate to you their construction. 

The foundations are first built, then the steel jacket 
is placed in position, after which the side walls are 
built of the 4 by 8 by 16-in. cinder concrete block laid 
4 ft. high, with a space of about 8 ins. between the 
walls and jacket in order to permit the flames to encircle 
the steel jacket completely. The highest temperature 
attained inside the steel jacket is approximately 1100 
degs. F., whereas on the exterior part it reaches to about 
1400 to 1600 degs. F. and the flames come in actual con¬ 
tact with the block. 

The pipe leading from the ground into the kiln are 
gas pipe and in case of gas shortage they use crude oil 
with compressed air, which are those leading from the 
top of the kiln, and in addition there are another set of 
gas and oil pipes in the rear end of the kiln. 

The square block, shown in the accompanying photo¬ 
graph, on the top of the kiln, are the multiplex cinder 
concrete chimney flues. 

I trust the above information is sufficient proof to 
convince our critics of the possibilities of concrete prod¬ 
ucts, that they are as fire resistive as any other material 
on the market today and that you will give this article 
as much publicity'as you think it deserves! 

Beaver Building Block Co., 

P. A. Napoli, Manager. 


CINDER PRODUCTS 


485 


•> The letter to which Mr. Napoli refers as being 
written by the American Glass Specialty Co. reads 
as follows: 

The Editor: P. A. Napoli, general manager, Beaver 
Building Block Co., Monaca, Pa., asked us to write to 
you regarding the decorating kilns that we built out of 
cinder block. * 

We wish to inform you that we have one of these 
furnaces which was built 14 months ago and have used 
it regularly since that time and we find it perfectly 
satisfactory. We fire from 900 to 1100 degs. F. and we 
have built five other furnaces since that time with the 
same material. We use these for side walls, crowns; 
in fact the whole kiln is built with these block. We 
also use chimney block, which we find satisfactory. 

Section 2, Bo Process. 

On Aug. 28, 1923, the U. S. Patent Office 
granted to Siguard Bo a patent on a “Method of 
making plastic bodies from coal ashes and a plas¬ 
tic body made from such method." 

The Bo process provides for the purification of 
cinders, including the removal of coke and any 
free soluble salts. In service the Bo products 
have shown their ability to resist fire. 

Proof in Service. 

In the fall of 1922 the Teachout Lumber Co. of 
Bufifalo, N. Y., built a 3-story addition to their 
factory. They had already bought a quantity of 
clay brick and clay tile before Bo brick could be 
obtained; however, they purchased more than 
200,000 Bo brick when they were available. The 
Teachout Lumber Co. liked the Bo brick so well 
that*they used them as face brick and in the 
pilasters supporting the walls. The clay brick and 
tile were used for backing up and the whole build¬ 
ing, when completed, was a very unusual structure 
that could give some idea of the comparative 
values of the different products. 

On Jan. 4. 1923, a fire started in the adjoining 


486 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


frame building and in a few minutes the whole 
factory was ablaze. The heat was so intense that 
glass in buildings 200 ft. away was destroyed and 
steel beams were warped and twisted. 

This was an actual fire test. It should be re¬ 
membered, first of all, that the brick and tile were 
bought in the open market and not selected for 
this particular occasion. Also, there were Bo 
brick next to clay brick and next to clay tile in a 
way that is very seldom found in any type of 
building. 

The Bo brick showed no evidence of having 
been through a fire, while on the other hand the 
clay brick cracked and spalled and the hollow 
clay tile broke in large areas due to the heat and 
sudden cooling when streams of water were ap¬ 
plied. The sand cement mortar used in laying the 
Bo brick was damaged to some extent, but the 
brick themselves not at all. 

In the destroyed frame building adjoining 
the 3-story brick building were two chimneys 
of the same height, approximately 30 ft., one of 
them built of clay brick, the other of Bo brick. 
The clay brick chimney collapsed and the little 
that remained was badly damaged. The B'o brick 
chimney was unaffected by the fire—it remained 
standing like a monolith guarding the ruins. 

Although the fire caused the lumber company a 
great loss, the fact that Bo brick was used saved 
several thousand dollars. After carefully in¬ 
specting the ruins, the building department 
allowed the contractor to leave the walls standing 
because the Bo brick used as face brick and in the 
supporting pilasters remained intact and made it 
possible to remove the ruined clay brick and tile, 
which were promptly replaced with Bo brick. 
Needless to say that when the Teachout Lumber 
Co. rebuilt their factory they used Bo brick ex- 
clusivelv. 

j 


CINDER PRODUCTS 487 

Summary. 

In the manufacture of cinder concrete products 
it is the custom to pass the cinders through roll 
crushers. In the Straub process the cinders are 
used just as they come from the furnace to the 
concrete mixer by way of the crusher. By the Bo 
process the cinders are subjected to a bath to re¬ 
move any free salts and a dotation process is used 
to remove the coke. All of the other equipment 
is such as is used in other concrete products 
plants. To adapt an existing plant to the manu¬ 
facture of cinder products it is only necessary to 
install the cinder treating machinery recom¬ 
mended by either of the companies controlling 
the patented processes. 

Cinder concrete units are especially adapted to 
take stucco. They may also be faced with such 
facing mixtures as are used in facing other con¬ 
crete products. It should be borne in mind that 
cinders constitute an aggregate for concrete just 
as do pebbles, crushed limestone, crushed granite, 
crushed trap rock, crushed blast furnace slag. 
Haydite, Larsite, crushed burned clay and crushed 
cement clinker. As there is a variation in the 
properties possessed by all of these aggregates, so 
also is there a variation in cinder aggregate as 
compared with any of the well-known aggregates. 
As the concretes take unto themselves some of the 
properties possessed by the several aggregates, so 
will concrete composed of cinders partake of 
some, of the properties of cinders but not all of 
the properties. Cinders which may be burned on 
a furnace fire will when made into concrete resist 
fire. 


CHAPTER LV. 


PORETE. 

Porete, as manufactured at the present time, 
weighs from 50 to 55 lbs. per cu. ft. It is made 
by mixing portland cement, sand and water with 
small pellets made from a material similar to 
paraffin wax. The mixing is done in an ordinary 
concrete mixer. The mixture is cast into molds. 
After the cement has set the product is exposed 
to heat and the material from which the pellets 
are made melts and evaporates completely. This 
leaves an empty shell or skeleton of portland ce¬ 
ment concrete or a pumice stone like product full 
of small holes. These holes are not intercon¬ 
nected, because the material which evaporates 
escapes very slowly through the minute pores 
which always occur in the solid substance of con¬ 
crete. The number and the size of the holes can 
be controlled so as to produce a cement product 
of any weight from 20 lbs. per cu. ft. upwards. 
The present weight has been adopted by the 
Porete Mfg. Co., because it gives a material with 
good strength for practical purposes at a low 
specific gravity. 

After the heat treatment the concrete behaves 
the same as other concrete and continues to set ii 
becoming older. Xo trace of the material of 
which the pellets are made is left over. The 
process and the product are covered by United 
States and foreign patents. The resulting Porete 
is a light weight material, the strength of which is 
not impaired by exposure to water, steam or fairly 
high heat. Its crushing strength’is 600 lbs. per 
sq. in. The tensile strength is naturally low. 
Wherever tensile stresses have to be taken care 
of, the Porete is and can be reinforced with steel, 
the same as other concrete. On account of its air 



PORETE 


489 


cell structure, Porete makes a good heat insulator 
for ordinary temperatures. The accompanying 
table gives the coefficient of heat transmission 
through Porete in comparison with other building 
materials. 


TABLE OF HEAT TRANSMISSION. 


Material. 

Concrete, 1:2 .. 

Gypsum . 

Porete . 

N. C. pine. 

Air cell asbestos 
Cork, board .... 


Weight per 
cu. ft., lbs. 

128 

62.5 

61 

40 

13 

11.7 


Heat trans¬ 
mission. 

‘>0.7 

24.4 

22.6 

20.7 

9.6 

8.0 


The heat transmission given in the table is the 
quantity of heat in B.t.u.’s that flows through 1 
sq. ft. of the material of a thickness of 1 in. 
having a difference in temperature of 1 deg. F. 
between its faces in 24 hours. These figures have 
been determined by the air box method. 

Porete is, at the present time, manufactured in 
the form of slabs 1 % ins. thick which are smooth 
on one side and rough on the othef. These slabs 
are made in two different types. 

Uses of Porete Slabs. 


Porete siding slabs, 24 by 32 by 1 in., weighing 
about 5 lbs. per sq. ft., are reinforced with 2-in. 
galvanized wire netting near the center. These 
slabs are used and recommended for a number of 
different purposes. Their main use is in their 
application as sheathing material on the outside 
of frame or steel structures. For stucco frame 
houses these slabs are nailed, with the rough side 
out, to wooden studding on 16-in. centers and the 
joints pointed up, after which two coats of ce¬ 
ment stucco are applied. The advantages of this 
type of construction are that no wooden sheathing 
boards, metal lath nor wood lath are required and 
that it takes one or two less coats of stucco. This 
forms a solid cement wall about \]/ 2 ins. thick on 








490 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

the outside of the studs in which the reinforcing 
metal is thoroughly protected by cement so that it 
cannot rust. The rough outer side of Porete holds 
the stucco so well that it cannot come off. 

For small garages, the studs are usually set on 
24-in. centers. The smooth side of Porete forms 
a good looking stone finish inside and the Porete 
wall gives good head insulation. This makes a 
warmer garage in the winter and a cooler garage 
in the summer. One coat only of stucco is re¬ 
quired for garages. 

Porete roofing slabs, 24 by 32 by 1 % ins., 
weighing about 6 lbs. per sq. ft., are reinforced 
with expanded metal % in. from the bottom. 
They are designed like reinforced concrete slabs 
and carry a live load of 50 lbs. per sq. ft. with a 
factor of safety of 6 on a free span of 32 ins. 

These slabs have been tested in the civil engi¬ 
neering laboratories of Columbia University in 
New York and found to be much stronger than 
what building department rules usually require. 

Porete roof decks have the advantage of being 
very light in weight, only 7 lbs. per sq. ft., which 
is one-half the weight of similar constructions. 
At the same time, they give good heat insulation 
and will prevent condensation in cold weather 
under ordinary circumstances. It is a well-known 
fact that solid concrete roofs, on account of the 
heat transmission through concrete, condense the 
moisture on the underside of the roof in winter. 

Although the 32-in. span is considered rather 
short by some engineers, this is counterbalanced 
by the fact that the combined weight of steel and 
roof deck is considerably smaller than with other 
roofs. Porete weighs only 30 lbs. per slab. As 
can easily be understood, these slabs may readily 
be handled by one man, thus accomplishing more 
rapid erection. 

Porete roofs are particularly adaptable where 


’PORETE 


491 


slate, tile or copper roofing has to be nailed up to 
a fireproof base and they have been widely used 
for this purpose on all kinds of buildings— 
schools, hospitals, churches, theaters, power 
plants, warehouses, etc. 

The same slabs, when covered with a /4-in. 
thick cement finish, are good for a live load of 
75 lbs. per sq. ft. on a free span of 32 ins. Some 
concrete floors have been put up where the purlins 
were set at 16-in. centers and these floors can 
easily carry 250 lbs. per sq. ft. with a large margin 
of safety. 


CHAPTER LVI. 


NOVOCRETE AND WOODCRETE. 

Novocrete is the trade name given to a patented 
concrete made with mineralized sawdust as the 
aggregate instead of sand or gravel. The saw¬ 
dust is treated with a mineralizing liquid which 
not only makes the sawdust fireproof but also 
prevents contraction or expansion of same during 
the setting and hardening of the concrete. 

Novocrete is made in exactly the same way as 
ordinary concrete except for the use of mineral¬ 
ized sawdust as the aggregate.instead of sand or 
gravel. The proportion of mineralized sawdust 
to cement varies from 2:1 to 5:1, according to 
the purpose for which the Novocrete is required. 

Tests made at Columbia University and in 
England show T that the strength of briquettes 
made of 1 part cement to 2 parts by volume of 
mineralized sawdust varies from 240 to 500 lbs. 
per sq, in. at 7 days, depending on the grade of 
sawdust used ; the compressive strength also vary¬ 
ing from 1500 to 2500 lbs. per sq. in. at 28 days, 
coarser sawdust being stronger than sawdust con¬ 
taining a large proportion of wood flour. 

Between November, 1923, and July, 1924, a 
large number of experiments have been made by 
The Novocrete Co., 522 Fifth avenue, New York, 
which has demonstrated that Novocrete has the 
following advantages: 

1. Low cost. (In most parts of the United States 
the cost of mineralized sawdust is less than the cost of 
sand or gravel.) 

2. The weight of Novocrete is only a little more than 
half the weight of concrete. 

3. Fireproof. 

4.. Wears better than concrete when subject to 
attrition. 



SAWDUST CONCRETE 493 

5 Better resiliency than concrete, therefore Novo- 
crete floors and pavements are easy to the feet. 

6. More silent than concrete. 

7. Novocrete can be nailed, screwed and polished. 

Novocrete has proved itself to be eminently 
suitable for making floors, pavements, hollow 
partition tiles, hollow building tiles, roofing tiles 
and precast lumber. Precast lumber planks can 
be easily and securely nailed to Novocrete up¬ 
rights or floor joists, making a fireproof construc¬ 
tion which in most parts of the United States 
costs less than a timber frame construction. 

Wood-Crete. 

Wood-crete is a fireproof, insulating, plastic 
product made from sawdust and portland cement. 
It is cheap, light, strong, durable and fire resistant. 

The process for making this fireproof and in¬ 
sulating sawdust product was developed by E. R. 
Stowell in 1917, while located in Michigan. 

The process is cheap and simple. A special 
fireproofing solution is combined with sawdust to 
plastic form; this plastic can be pressed or tamped 
to shape, poured to form or applied with a trowel 
like plaster and stucco. The product will air-cure 
in 48 hours under ordinary conditions and car-, be 
cured hard and strong in a few hours by heating. 
It will not expand or contract and never cracks 
or buckles; it can be heated to a white heat and 
will not lose its shape or fireproof qualities. When 
first heated, the volatile matter will distill out and 
there will be some smoke, but the sawdust will 
not ignite and will not change form. 

The fireproofing solution can be made at a cost 
of 15 to 20 cts. per gal. and no special equipment 
is required; it can be prepared on the job as used, 
if so desired. It will require from 1 to 3 gals, of 
this solution for 1 cu. ft. of sawdust, depending 
on the grade of product desired, and it can be 


494 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


made in many grades, from a soft plaster-board 
which can be cut with a saw, up to a product hard 
enough for floor finish, wall or roofing tile, fire¬ 
proof partition tile and hollow building block. 

A mixing box and a hoe, or a concrete mixer r 
is all the equipment necessary to prepare the 
plastic. Fine, coarse, green, dry or damp sawdust 
can be used and the kind of wood will make no 
difference. This plastic will remain soft and 
workable for many months, in tight containers. 

Sawdust plastic can be largely used for boiler 
and pipe covering, insulating for boiler furnaces, 
ovens and for insulating tops of brick and tile 
kilns, for dry kilns, ice and cold storage plants. 

Quoting briefly from tests made by the Uni¬ 
versity of Chicago, Feb. 13, 1918: 

A slab of the insulating composition *4 in. thick was 
placed on an electric hot plate, so as to cover one-half 
the heating surface. A porcelain crucible, containing 
10 cc. of water, was placed on the insulating slab and 
one exactly like it on the surface of the heater; then 
the current was switched on. 

The water in the 'crucible on the metal was completely 
evaporated before that in the crucible on the insulating 
slab had boiled vigorously. 

Tested same as before, but with platinum crucibles, 
the water in the crucible placed on the metal began to- 
boil and was completely evaporated before that in the- 
crucible on the insulating slab began to boil. 

A small shaving of lead was placed on the insulating 
slab and one exactly like it on the surface of the stove; 
the one on the stove melted immediately; the 
one on the insulating slab had not melted after the 
stove had been running for 1 hour, and when the in¬ 
sulating slab was removed the surface of the stove 
immediately under it was red hot. This stove will not 
generate a red heat when running exposed. 

Insulating composition will not stand extreme high 
temperatures. It was converted into a spongy slag at a 
white heat, but will endure without appreciable injury 
a bright red heat. 

Sawdust, now a waste material, can be con¬ 
verted into profit by the use of this process. 


CHAPTER LVII. 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR CONCRETE 
BUILDING UNITS. 

Several specifications are given in order to 
show in detail the requirements that should gov¬ 
ern selection of materials and execution of work¬ 
manship in the manufacture of concrete products. 
By reference to these specifications it will be no¬ 
ticed that even for different products certain like 
fundamentals appear in each specification; for 
example, all cement used must meet the same re¬ 
quirements, all aggregates must be clean, all 
water must be pure, all products must be pro¬ 
tected, all concrete must be thoroughly propor¬ 
tioned, all concrete must be thoroughly mixed, 
and all products must be carefully cured. 

It is evident that from any specification com¬ 
bined with a knowledge of suitable mixtures to 
use, another specification can be written for prac¬ 
tically any product. The service required of any 
product should be known. 

The following specifications, known as 
American Concrete Institute Tentative Standard, 
are standard specifications and building regula¬ 
tions for concrete building block and tile and 
for brick, and were adopted by the Ameri¬ 
can Concrete Institute in 1924 as a tentative 
standard. If these specifications are followed in 
the manufacture of concrete block, brick and 
tile, a uniformly high class product may always 
be expected. It is proposed to adopt the specifi¬ 
cations as standard at the 1925 convention in Chi¬ 
cago if no changes are made at the convention. 
The tentative specifications are the standards on 
which the Concrete Products Association issues 
certificates of quality on block, tile and brick. 



496 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


American Concrete Institute Tentative Standard 
Specifications for Concrete Building Block 
and Concrete Building Tile. 

I. General. 

1. The purpose of these specifications is to define the 
requirements for coii'crete building block and concrete 
building tile to be used in construction. 

2. The word “concrete” shall be understood to mean 
Portland cement concrete. 

3. According to the strength in compression 28 days 
after being manufactured or when shipped, concrete 
block and concrete tile shall be classified as heavy load 
bearing, load bearing and non-load bearing on the basis 
of the following requirements: 

Compressive strength, lbs. 
per sq. in. of gross cross- 
sectional area as laid in 
the wall. 

Aver, of 3 or Min. for indi- 
more units. vidual unit. 


Name of classification. 

Heavy load bearing block or tile.. 1200 

Hoad bearing block or tile. 700 

Non-load bearing block or tile. ... 250 


1000 

600 

200 


4. The gross cross-sectional area of a one-piece con¬ 
crete block or tile shall be considered as the product of 
the length times the width of the unit as laid in the wall. 
No allowance shall be made for air spaces in hollow 
units. The gross cross-sectional area of each unit of a 
2-piece block or tile shall be considered the product of 
the length of the unit times one-half the thickness of 
the wall for which the 2-piece block or tile is intended. 

5. The compressive strength of the 'concrete in units 
of all classifications except “non-load bearing block” 
shall be at least 1000 lbs. per sq. in., when calculated on 
the minimum cross-sectional area in bearing. 

6. Concrete building block and tile to be exposed to 
soil or weather in the finished work (without stucco, 
'plaster or other suitable protective covering) shall meet 
the requirements of the absorption test. 

7. All concrete building block and tile not covered by 
paragraph 6 need not meet an absorption requirement. 

8. Concrete block and tile shall not absorb more than 
10% of the dry weight of the unit when tested as herein¬ 
after specified, except when it is made of concrete 
weighing less than 140 lbs. per cu. ft. For block or tile 
made with concrete weighing less than 140 lbs. per cu. ft. 
the absorption in per cent by weight shall not be more 
than 10 multiplied by 140 and divided by the unit weight 



BLOCK AND TILE SPECIFICATIONS 497 

in pounds per cubic foot of the concrete under consid¬ 
eration. 

9. Specimens for tests shall be representative of the 
commercial product of the plant. 

10. Not less than three and preferably five specimens 
shall be required for each test. 

11. The specimens used in the absorption test may be 
used for the strength test provided they have been dried 
at approximately 70 degs. F. for not less than 3 days. 

II. Methods of Testing. 

12. The specimens to be tested shall be carefully 
measured for over-all dimensions of length, width and 
height. 

13. Bearing surfaces shall be made plane by capping 
with plaster of paris or a mixture of Portland cement 
and plaster which shall be allowed to thoroughly harden 
before the test. 

14. Specimens shall be accurately centered in the 
testing machine. 

15. The load shall be applied through a spherical 
bearing block placed on top of the specimen. 

16. When testing other than rectangular block or tile 
care must be taken to see that the load is applied 
through the center of gravity of the specimen. 

17. Metal plates of sufficient thickness to prevent ap¬ 
preciable bending shall be placed between the spherical 
bearing block and the specimen. 

18. The specimen shall be loaded to failure. 

19. The compressive strength in pounds per square 
inch of gross cross-sectional area is the total applied 
load in pounds divided by the gross cross-sectional area 
in square inches. 

20. The specimens shall be dried to constant weight 
at a temperature of from 212 to 250 degs. F. and the 
weight recorded. After drying, the specimen shall be 
immersed in clean water at approximately 70 degs. F. for 
a period of 24 hours. They shall then be removed, the 
surface water wiped off and the specimens re-washed. 
The absorption is the weight of the water absorbed, 
divided by the weight of the drv specimen and multiplied 
by 100. 

21. The weight per cubic foot of the concrete in a 
block or tile is the weight of the unit in pounds divided 
by its volume in cubic feet. To obtain the volume of 
the unit, fill a vessel with enough water to immerse the 
specimen. The greatest accuracy will be obtained with 
the smallest vessel in which the specimen can be im¬ 
mersed with its length vertical. Mark the level of the 


498 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


water, then immerse the saturated specimen and weigh 
the vessel. Draw the water down to its original level 
and weigh the vessel again. The difference between the 
two weights divided by 62.5 equals the volume of the 
specimen in cubic feet. 

American Concrete Institute Tentative Standard 
Specifications for Concrete Brick 

I. General. 

1. The purpose of these specifications is to define 
the requirements for concrete brick to be used in con¬ 
struction. 

2. The word “concrete” shall be understood to mean 
Portland cement concrete. 

3. The average compressive strength of concrete brick 
28 days after being manufactured or when shipped shall 
not be less than 1500 lbs. per sq. in. of gross cross- 
sectional area as laid in the wall, and the compressive 
strength of any individual brick shall not be less than 
1000 lbs. per sq. in. of gross cross-sectional area as laid 
in the wall. 

4. The gross cross-sectional area of a brick shall be 
considered as the product of the length times the width 
of the unit as laid in the wall. 

5. Concrete brick shall not absorb more than 12% of 
the dry weight of the brick when tested as hereinafter 
specified except when they are made of concrete weigh¬ 
ing less than 125 lbs. per cu. ft. For brick made of 
concrete weighing less than 125 lbs. per cu. ft. the 
average absorption in per cent by weight shall not be 
more than 12 multiplied by 125 and divided by the unit 
weight in pounds per cubic foot of the concrete under 
consideration. 

6. Specimens for tests shall be representative of the 
commercial product of the plant. 

7. Five specimens shall be required for each test. 

8. The specimens used in the absorption test may be 
used for the strength test provided they have been dried 
at approximately 70 degs. F. for not less than 3 days. 

II. Methods of Testing. 

9. The specimens to be tested shall be carefully meas¬ 
ured for over-all dimensions of length, width and thick¬ 
ness. 

10. Bearing surfaces shall be made plane by capping 
with plaster of paris or a mixture of portland cement 
and plaster which shall be allowed to thoroughly harden 
before the test. 


ROOFING TILE SPECIFICATIONS 499 

11. Specimens shall be accurately centered in the 
testing machine. 

12. The load shall be applied through a spherical 
bearing block placed on top of the specimen. 

13. Metal plates of sufficient thickness to prevent ap¬ 
preciable bending shall be placed between the spherical 
bearing block and the specimen. 

14. The specimen shall be loaded to failure. 

15. The tompressive strength in pounds per square 
inch of gross cross-sectional area is the total applied 
load in pounds divided by the gross cross-sectional area 
in square inches. 

16. The specimens shall be dried to constant weight 
at a temperature of from 212 to 250 degs. F. and the 
weight recorded. After drying, the specimens shall be 
immersed in clean water at approximately 70 degs. F. for 
a period of 24 hours. They shall then be removed, the 
surface water wiped off and the specimens re-weighed. 
The absorption is the weight of the water absorbed, 
divided bv the 'weight of the dry specimen and multiplied 
by 100. 

Specifications for Concrete Roofing Tile. 

American Concrete Institute ; Standard No. 22. 

1. These specifications apply to concrete roofing tile 
approximately 9 by 15 ins. over all. 

2. Concrete roofing tile, meeting the requirements of 
these specifications, may be used in building construction. 

3. (A) Concrete roofing tile must be subjected to 
load test. 

(B) Tests shall be made on full size samples. At 
least 10 samples must be provided for the purpose of 
testing and must represent the ordinary commercial 
product. 

4. Load. The breaking load shall average not less 
than 150 lbs. per tile when the load is applied in accord¬ 
ance with the method described below. Lots of tile in- 
Iended for building construction may be rejected if more 
than 10% of the samples tested break at loads of less 
than 100 lbs. 

5. (A) Method of Testing. Tile shall be tested 
with weather face up. The tile shall be supported under 
the lugs near the ends if the tile have lugs and in no 
event shall the span be less than 13 ins. The support 
under one end shall be rigid and the support under the 
other end shall rest on a roller bearing to allow for 
variation in the under surface of the tile. 

(B) The load shall be applied in the center of the 


500 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


tile by placing a rigid bar having a semi-circular bearing 
across the tile midway between the points of support. 
From this cross bar shall be suspended a bucket-like 
receptacle which shall be loaded with shot, sand or other 
suitable material until the tile breaks. 

6. Cement. Portland cement shall be used in the 
manufacture of concrete roofing tile and shall meet the 
requirements of the current Standard Specifications for 
Portland cement adopted by the Americafi Society for 
Testing Materials. 

7. Aggregates. Aggregates used in the manufacture 
of concrete roofing tile shall be of such a nature as will 
produce the quality of the tile required by these speci¬ 
fications and the following addenda: 

Absorption of concrete roofing tile shall not be more 
than 6% in 48 hours. They shall not be warped more 
than % in. from plane surface and shall not vary more 
than 1/16 in. in thickness. 


CHAPTER LVIII. 


SUGGESTED SPECIFICATIONS FOR RE¬ 
INFORCED CONCRETE CULVERT 

PIPE . 1 

(For sizes 24 ins. and greater.) 

1. All concrete culvert pipe of a diameter of 24 ins. 
and greater shall be reinforced, unless otherwise speci¬ 
fied, and shall be circular in cross section. 

2. Length. Reinforced concrete pipe shall be in sec¬ 
tions of not less than 3 ft. in length and so formed that 
when laid together and cemented they shall make a con¬ 
tinuous and uniform line of pipe. 

Joints. 

3. Joints. The joints may be of any of the following 
types: Bell and spigot, bevel overlapping, interlocking 
or other type satisfactory to the engineer. 

4. Proportions. The concrete used in the construc¬ 
tion of the pipe shall consist of 1 sack of Portland 
cement, 2 cu. ft. of clean, well-graded sand and 4 cu. ft. 
of clean, well-graded crushed stone or gravel. 

Reinforcement. 

5. Steel Reinforcing. The reinforcement shall con¬ 
sist of one or two concentric rings, as specified in table 
set forth in par. 6, of steel wire fabric or rods. The 
pipe manufacturer may use one ring of reinforcement 
placed ellipti-cally, provided the amount of reinforcement 
so placed is sufficient to withstand the crushing loads 
specified in article 8. 

6. Thickness. The thickness of pipe walls shall be as 
set forth in the following table, but thinner walls may 
be used provided the amount of steel reinforcement is 
increased to give sufficient strength to withstand the 
crushing loads specified in article 8 of these specifica¬ 
tions. 

*A joint committee composed of representatives of 
various associations is working under the directions of 
the American Society for Testing Materials on specifica¬ 
tions for concrete culvert pipe. When the committee 
submits its report and the specifications are adopted by 
the American Society for Testing Materials or other tech¬ 
nical society of standing then the suggested specifications 
herein should be regarded as obsolete and the new speci¬ 
fications used. 




502 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

Table of Diameters, Wall Thickness and Amount 

of Reinforcement. 

Minimum Cross sectional area 

thickness, of steel per lin. ft. 

Size, ins. ins. of shell. 


24. 

. 3 




.058 


27. 

O 




.058 


30. 

. 3y 2 




.080 


33. 

. 4 




.107 


36. 

. 4 




.146 


39. 

. 4 




.146 


42. 

. 41/2 




.146 


45. 

. 4i/ 2 




.146 


48. 

. 5 

2 

rings 

of 

.080 

each 

54. 

. 5i/ 2 

2 

rings 

of 

.107 

each 

60. 

. 6 

2 

rings 

of 

.146 

each 

66. 

. 5i/ 2 

2 

rings 

of 

.146 

each 

72. 


2 

rings 

of 

.168 

each 


7. Samples for Testing. Any or all of the following 
tests may be applied to samples selected by the engineer 
from the pipe delivered on the work. For making such 
tests as may be required, the contractor shall furnish 
and deliver, when directed and where required, three 
lengths of each size of pipe used in the work. 

8. Crushing Tests. When supported at the bottom 
upon a knife edge 1 in. in width in such a manner that 
an even bearing is provided throughout the whole 
length, exclusive of the bell and load, is applied at the 
crown uniformly through a similar knife edge, the vari¬ 
ous sizes of pipe shall withstand the following loads: 


Diameter, ins. 


Load, lbs. per lin. ft. 


24 1950 

27 2150 

30 2350 

36 2800 

42 3200 


When supported upon a sand saddle which extends 
the full length of the pipe exclusive of the bell and 
whose upper surface fits accurately the outer curved 
surface of the pipe, and whose width is equal to an arc 
of 15 degs., in such a manner that an even bearing is 
provided throughout the whole length and load is ap¬ 
plied at the crown uniformly through a knife edge 1 in. 
in width, the various sizes of pipes with diameters 
greater than 42 ins. shall withstand the following loads : 


Diameter, ins. 

Load. lbs. per lin. ft. 

48 . 

. 3800 

54 . 

. 4400 

60 . 

. 50 

66 . 

. 5300 

72 . 



9, Hydrostatic Test. When subjected to an internal 


























CULVERT PIPE SPECIFICATIONS 503 


hydrostatic pressure of 8 lbs. per sq. in., reinforced con¬ 
crete pipe shall show no leakage. 

10. Test Specimens. Specimens for absorption tests 
shall be sound pieces with all edges broken and may be 
from pipe broken in crushing or other tests; from 12 to 
20 sq. ins. in area and as nearly square as can be readily 
prepared. They shall be free from observable cracks, 
fissures, laminations or shattered edges. 

11. Drying. Preparatory to the absorption test, the 
specimen shall be first weighed and then dried in a 
drier or oven at a temperature of not less than 110 degs. 
C. (230 degs, F.) for not less than 3 hours. After re¬ 
moval from the drier, the specimen shall be allowed to 
cool in dry air to a temperature of 20 to 25 degs. F. 
(68 to 77 degs. F.) and then reweighed. 

If the specimen is comparatively dry when taken and 
the second weight closely agrees with the first, it shall 
be considered dry. If the specimen is wet when taken, 
it shall be placed in the drier for a drying treatment of 
2 hours and reweighed. If the third weight checks 
the second, the specimen shall be considered dry. In 
case of any doubt the specimen shall be redried for 
2-hour periods until check weights are obtained. 

12. Immersion. The specimen, after final drying, 
cooling and weighing shall be placed with other similar 
specimens in a suitable wire receptacle, packed tightly 
enough to prevent jostling, covered with distilled water 
or rain-water, raised to the boiling point and boiled for 
5 hours, and then cooled in water to a final temperature 
of 10 to 15 degs. C. (50 to 59 degs. F.). 

13. Reweighing. The specimen shall drain for 1 
minute, the superficial moisture having been removed by 
towel or blotting paper, placed upon the balance. 

14. Calculation of Absorption. The best result shall 
be calculated as percentage of the initial dry weight. 

15. Number of Specimens. One specimen shall be 
tested of each pipe broken in the crushing test. 

16. Reporting Results. The results shall be reported 
separately for each individual specimen together with 
the mean for all the specimens from the same shipment. 

17. Identification. Each specimen shall be marked, so 
that it may be identified with pipe used in the crushing 
test from which specimen was taken. Marking shall be 
applied so that the pigment shall not cover more than 
1% of the total superficial area of the specimen. 

18. Allowable Absorption. The maximum allowable 
absorption shall be 12%. 

19. Proportions. All cement mortar shall be com¬ 
posed of 1 part portland cement and 2 parts clean sand. 


CHAPTER LIX. 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR CONCRETE 
DRAIN TILE. 

American Concrete Institute Tentative Standard 
Specifications for Concrete Drain Tile.* 

I. General. 

1. These specifications apply to con>crete drain tile, 
consisting of two classes, namely, standard drain tile 
and extra-quality drain tile. 

The purposes for which these classes are intended to 
be suitable are as follows: 

Standard drain tile, for ordinary district land drain¬ 
age at moderate depths. 

Extra-quality drain tile, for district land drainage, at 
considerable depths and where an extra quality is desired. 

2. The purchaser shall specify the class of tile to be 
supplied. Standard drain tile shall be supplied where 
no advance selection is stated. 

• 3. The acceptability of drain tile shall be determined 
by the results of the chemical and physical tests herein¬ 
after specified, any or all of which may be required by 
the purchaser; and by inspection, to determine whether 
the tile comply with the specifications as to dimensions, 
shape and freedom from external and internal defect. 

II. Methods of Testing. 

4. Concrete drain tile shall be manufactured from 
Portland cbment concrete. By concrete is meant a suit¬ 
able mixture of portland cement, mineral aggregates and 
water, hardened by hydraulic chemical action. 

5. Portland cement shall meet the requirements of the 
standard specifications and test for portland cement 
(Serial Designation: C9-21) of the American Society 
for Testing Materials. 

6. The materials shall possess such physical and 
chemical properties that when molded into tile and prop¬ 
erly cured the product will be strong, durable and serv¬ 
iceable, free from objectionable defect and in compliance 
with these specifications and tests. 

III. Sizes and Dimensions. 

7. All drain tile shall be of circular cross-section, 
except when otherwise specified in advance. They shall 

’•'Presented by Committee P-7, on Concrete Sewer Pipe, 
to the Annual Convention, Chicago, 1924. 




DRAIN TILE SPECIFICATIONS 


505 


be approximately straight, except in the case of special 
connections. The ends shall be regular and smooth to 
permit making close joints by pressing together ad¬ 
joining tile. 

8. The sizes of drain tile shall be designated by their 
internal diameters. 

9. Drain tile smaller than 12 ins. in diameter shall 
have a minimum length of 12 ins. Tile from 12 to 30 ins. 
in diameter, inclusive, shall have lengths not less than 
the diameters. Tile larger than 30 ins. in diameter shall 
have a minimum length of 30 ins. 

10. Permissible variations as given in Table I shall 
in no case be exceeded. 

TABLE 1—PERMISSIBLE VARIATIONS IN DRAIN 

TILE. 

Standard Extra quality 

Physical properties specified. drain tile. drain tile 

Allowable variation of average 

diameter of any tile above or be¬ 
low specified diameter, per cent.. 3 3 

Allowable variation from straight¬ 
ness, percentage of length. 2 2 

IV. Workmanship and Finish. 

11. Drain tile shall be substantially uniform in struc¬ 
ture throughout and reasonably smooth on the inside. 

12. Drain tile shall be free from cracks and checks 
extending into the body of the tile in such a manner as 
to decrease the strength appreciably. Tile shall not be 
chipped or broken in such a manner as to decrease their 
strength materially or to admit earth into the drain. 

V. Marking. 

13. When shipment of tile is made in any manner 
other than direct from manufacturer to user, tile shall 
be so marked that the manufacturer of the tile can be 
identified. 

VI. Chemical Test and Requirements. 

14. The purchaser may specify special chemical re¬ 
quirements as to resistance of the tile to chemical action 
in cases where soils or drainage waters have marked 
acid or alkaline character, or are of abnormally high tem¬ 
perature, and may prescribe chemical tests of the tile to 
ascertain whether these special requirements are met. 
Without a special agreement in advance, no drain tile 
shall be rejected by reason of its composition as deter¬ 
mined by ultimate chemical analysis. 

VII. Physical Tests. 

(A) General. 

15. The physical tests of drain tile shall include load 



.506 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


tests and absorption test and may include freezing and 
thawing test, when specified by the purchaser in advance 
scales just prior to testing and the weight reported. 

16. The specimens to be tested shall be selected by 
the purchaser or his representative at the point or points 
designated by him when placing the order. The test 
specimen shall be full size tile which will in every respect 
pass the inspection requirements hereinafter provided. 

17. A standard physical test shall comprise tests of 
five individual tile for each size of tile represented. 
Specimens of tile may be selected by the inspector in 
such number as he judges necessary to determine fairly 
the quality of all the tile. The manufacturer or other 
seller shall furnish specimens of tile without charge up 
to 0.5% of the whole number of tile, and the purchaser 
shall pay for all in excess of that percentage at the same 
rate as for other tile. 

(B) Load Tests. 

18. The load test shall be performed either by the 
sand bearing or three-edge bearing method as hereinafter 
described. Each manufacturer shall be fully equipped 
to test tile by at least one of these methods. 

19. The walls of the tile shall, at the time of testing, 
be as thoroughly wet as will result from completely 
covering with hay, cloth or similar absorbent material 
and keeping the covering wet for not less than 12 hours. 

20. No specimen of tile shall be exposed to water or 
air temperatures lower than 40 degs. F. from the begin¬ 
ning of wetting until tested. Frozen tile shall be com¬ 
pletely thawed before the wetting begins. 

21. Each specimen of tile shall be weighed on reliable 
scales prior to testing and the weights reported. 

22. When sand bearings are used, the specimen shall 
have its upper and lower quadrants, measured on the 
center line of the shell, carefully bedded in dry, clean, 
uniformly compacted sand having a minimum thickness 
of at least one-fourth the mean diameter of the pipe to 
be tested. The sand shall be prevented from lateral flow 
by being placed in rigid frames which shall not come in 
contact with the test specimen. Seepage of sand be¬ 
tween the tile and the upper bearing frame may be pre¬ 
vented by strips of cloth attached to the lower inside 
edge of the frame. 

The upper bearing shall be centered over the tile and 
the load shall be applied centrally thereto through a rigid 
horizontal bearing plate, covering its surface but not in 
contact with the bearing frame. 

23. The sand bearing test may be made without the 


DRAIN TILE SPECIFICATIONS 


507 


use of a testing machine, by piling weights directly on 
a platform resting on the top bearing plate, provided, 
however, that the weight shall be piled symmetrically 
about a vertical line through the center of the tile, and 
that the platform shall not be allowed to touch the top 
bearing frame. 

24. When 3-edge bearings are used, the ends of each 
specimen of tile shall be accurately marked in halves of 
the circumference prior to the test. The lower bearings 
shall consist of two wooden strips with vertical sides, 
each strip having its interior top corner rounded to a 
radius of approximately in. They shall be straight 
and shall be securely fastened to a rigid block with their 
interior vertical sides 1 in. apart. The upper bearing 
shall be a wooden block, straight and true from end to 
end. The bearings shall be centered on the diametrically 
opposite markings previously made and the test load 
shall be applied through the upper bearing block in such 
a way as to produce a uniform distribution of the load 
throughout the length of the pipe and leave the bearing 
free to move in a vertical plane passing midway between 
the lower bearings. 

25. In testing tile which is “out of line” the lines of 
the bearings chosen shall be those which appear to give 
most favorable -conditions for fair bearings. 

26. Any prime mover or hand power which will apply 
the load at a uniform rate of about 2000 lbs. per min., 
or in increments of not more than 100 lbs. at the same 
rate, may be used in making the test. The testing ma¬ 
chine shall be substantial and rigid throughout, so that 
the distribution of the load will not be affected appre¬ 
ciably by the deformation or yielding of any part. The 
load shall be applied continuously until failure occurs 
and at the time of failure shall be observed and 
recorded. 

(C) Absorption Test. 

27. Absorption test specimens may be taken from tile 
broken in the load test. Three specimens shall be taken 
from each of five tile—one specimen from each end of 
the tile and the third specimen from near the middle 
portion. All specimens shall be sound pieces with all 
edges broken and shall be from 12 to 20 sq. ins. in area 
and as nearly square as they can readily be prepared. 

28. Each specimen shall be marked so that it may be 
identified with the tile from which it was taken. The 
markings shall be applied so that the pigment used will 
not cover more than 1% of the total area of the 
specimen. 


508 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

29. Preparatory to the absorption test, all specimens 
shall be first weighed and then dried in a drier or oven 
at a temperature of not less than 110 degs. C. (230 degs. 
F.) to constant weight. 

30. The balance used shall be sensitive to 0.5 g. when 
loaded with 1 kg. and weighings shall be read at least 
to the nearest gram. When other than metric weights 
are used, the same degree of accuracy must be obtained. 

31. Specimens after drying and weighing shall be 
placed in a suitable receptacle, covered with distilled 
water or rainwater, and boiled for 5 hours, and then 
cooled in water to a final temperature of 10 to 15 degs. 
C. (50 to 59 degs. F.). 

32. The specimens shall be allowed to drain for not 
more than 1 minute, superficial moisture removed by 
towel or blotting paper, and then weighed. 

33. The absorption shall be considered as the increase 
in weight over the dry weight and shall be calculated 
and recorded as a percentage thereof. Results shall 
be reported for each specimen, together with the average 
for the 15 or more specimens comprising the standard 
sample. 

(D) Freezing and Thawing Test. 

34. For the freezing and thawing test another set of 
specimens similar to those used in the absorption test 
shall be prepared and dried to constant weight. 

35. The specimens shall be immersed for 72 hours in 
water having a temperature of 18 to 24 degs. C. (65 to 
75 degs. F.), and then weighed. When the specimens 
have been weighed after saturation with water they shall 
be returned to the water and kept immersed until the 
freezing test is begun. For freezing, they shall be placed 
with the concrete faces upward in watertight metal trays, 
suitably mounted in a rigid metal crate, and immersed in 
i-ce water until the specimens have attained substantially 
the temperature of the water, after which the water shall 
be drawn to a depth of % in. in each tray. The crate 
shall then be lifted without disturbing the specimens and 
placed in the freezing apparatus. 

36. Freezing shall be performed in a quiet atmos- 
sphere, free from perceptible natural or artificial cur¬ 
rents. If artificial freezing apparatus is employed the 
apparatus shall have sufficient heat-absorbent capacity to 
enable the temperature of the freezing chamber to be 
brought to 10 degs. C. (14 degs. F.) or below, within 30 
min. after the introduction of the specimens. The tem¬ 
perature in the freezing apparatus shall not fall lower 
than 20 degs. C. (4 degs. F.). The freezing shall be con¬ 
tinued until the water in the trays is frozen solid. 


DRAIN TILE SPECIFICATIONS 509 

37. At the conclusion of freezing the crate of speci¬ 
mens shall be withdrawn and at once immersed in water 
at a tempertaure of 18 degs. to 24 degs. C. (65 degs. to 
75 degs. F.) in a special receptacle of proper size. A 
temperature of 18 degs. to 24 degs. C. (65 degs. to 75 degs. 
F.) shall then be maintained for not less than 2 hours. 
At the conclusion of the thawing treatment the crate of 
specimens shall be inspected and the condition of. each 
sample shall be noted in the records. 

38. Failure under the freezing and thawing treatment 
shall be considered to be reached when: 

(a) The specimens show superficial disintegration or 
spalling with loss of weight of more than 5% of the 
initial dry weight, or 

(b) The specimens show evident serious loss of 
structural strength. 

(E) Physical Test Requirements. 

39. The average test load for all of the tile consti¬ 
tuting a standard sample shall not be less than given in 
1 able II, and no individual tile shall show a strength of 
less than 75% of such requirement. 

40. The average absorption for all the specimens 
constituting a standard sample shall not be greater than 
that given in Table II, and the average test of an indi¬ 
vidual tile shall in no case show an absorption of more 
than 125% of such requirement. 

41. In the freezing and thawing test, at least 95% of 
all the tile tested shall meet the requirements. 

42. In the event that a standard sample of tile fails 
to meet the requirements of the absorption test, the 
manufacturer or other seller may demand recourse to the 
freezing and thawing test, to be made at his expense. 
In such recourse the number of tile tested shall be 4 
times the number represented by the standard sample. 
If the material passes the freezing and thawing test 
satisfactorily, it shall not be rejected on account of its 
failure to meet the absorption requirements. 

43. In the event of the failure of a standard sample 
to meet the above requirements, the manufacturer or 
other seller may thoroughly cull the material and submit 
a portion for re-test at his own expense, and for such 
re-test the number of tile per sample shall be 10 for the 
strength and absorption tests and 20 for the freezing 
and thawing test. In the event of the failure of the 
material after culling to pass the requirements, it shall 
he rejected without further test. 


510 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

TABLE II— PHYSICAL, TEST REQUIREMENTS—DRAIN 

TILE. 


Standard drain tile. E’xtra-quality drain tile. 
Average load, Avg. Average load, Avg. 


Internal 

lbs. per lin. ft. absorp- 

lbs. per lin. ft. absorp- 

diam. of 

Sand 

3-edge 

tion. 

Sand 

3-edge. 

tion. 

, tile, ins. 

bearing, bearing. 

% 

bearing. 

bearing. 

% 

4. 

... 1200 

800 

10 

1600 

1067 

9 

6. 

... 1200 

800 

10 

1600 

1067 

9 

8. 

... 1200 

800 

10 

1600 

1067 

9 

10. 

. . . 1200 

800 

10 

1600 

1067 

9 

12. 

... 1200 

800 

10 

1600 

1067 

9 

14. 

. .. 1200 

800 

10 

1600 

1067 

9 

16. 

. . . 1300 

867 

10 

1600 

1067 

9 

18. 

... 1400 

933 

10 

1800 

1200 

9 

20. 

... 1500 

1000 

10 

2000 

1333 

9 

22. 

. . . 1600 

1067 

10 

2200 

1467 

9 

24. 

... 1700 

1133 

10 

2400 

1600 

9 

26. 

. . . 1800 

1200 

10 

2600 

1733 

9 

28. 

... 1900 

1267 

10 

2800 

1867 

9 

30. 

... 2000 

1333 

10 

3000 ' 

2000 

9 

32. 

. .. 2100 

1400 

10 

3200 

2133 

9 

34. 

. .. 2200 

1467 

10 

3400 

2267 

9 

36. 

... 2300 

1533 

10 

3600 

2400 

9 

SS. 

... 2400 

1600 

10 

3800 

2533 

9 

40. 

. .. 2500 

1667 

10 

4000 

2667 

9 

42. 

... 2600 

1733 

10 

4200 

2800 

9 


Note.—When the freezing and thawing test is made as 
provided herein, the number of freezings and thawings to 
be endured shall be as follows: For standard drain tile, 
36; for extra-quality drain tile, 48. 

44. All tile shall be subject to inspection at the fac¬ 
tory, trench or other point of delivery by a competent 
inspector employed by the consumer or purchaser. The 
purposes of the inspection shall be to cull and reject tile 
which, independent of the physical tests herein specified, 
fail to meet the requirements of these specifications. 

45. Tile shall be subject to rejection on account of: 

(a) Variations in any dimensions exceeding the per¬ 
missible variations given in Table I. 

(b) Cracks, fractures or defects in excess of those 
allowed in Sections 11 and 12. 

(c) Failure to give a clear ringing sound when a dry 
tile placed on end is tapped with a light hammer. 

46. Rejected tile shall be plainly marked by the in¬ 
spector and replaced by the manufacturer or seller with 
tile which meet the requirements of these specifications, 
without additional cost to the consumer or purchaser. 

47. The manufacturer or other seller may appeal 
from decisions of the inspector on questions of strength 
or structure when such decisions are based on visual 
inspection alone, in which case the point at issue shall 
be determined by standard physical tests, cost of which 
shall be paid by appellant, if the inspector was right, or 
bv the purchaser if his inspector was in error. 






















CHAPTER LX. 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR PLAIN CON¬ 
CRETE SEWER PIPE. 

American Concrete Institute Tentative Standard 
Specifications for Plain Concrete Sewer Pipe.* 

I. General. 

1. These specifications apply to concrete pipe intended 
to be used for the conveyance of sewage, industrial 
wastes and storm water. Pipe furnished under these 
specifications shall be of a single class. 

2. The acceptability of pipe shall be determined by 
the results of the chemical and physical tests hereinafter 
specified, any or all of which may be required by the 
purchaser; and by inspection, to determine whether the 
pipe comply with the specifications as to dimensions, 
shape and freedom from external and internal defects. . 

II. Materials. 

3. Concrete sewer pipe shall be manufactured from 
Portland cement concrete. By concrete is meant a suit¬ 
able mixture of Portland cement, mineral aggregates and 
water, hardened by hydraulic chemical action. 

4. Portland cement shall meet the requirements of 
the standard specifications and tests for portland cement 
(Serial Designation C 9-21) of the American Society 
for Testing Materials. 

5. The materials shall possess such physical and 
chemical properties that when molded into pipe and 
properly cured the product will be strong, durable and 
serviceable, free from objectionable defects, and in com¬ 
pliance with these specifications and tests. 

III. Sizes and Dimensions. 

6. Pipe of the various sizes shall have the dimensions 
given in Table III for the quality of concrete therein 
designated. When concrete of a less unit strength is 
used, the dimensions of the pipe shall be such that the 
pipe will meet the test requirements given in Table II. 

7. Permissible variations as given in Table IV shall 
in no case be exceeded. 

*Presented by Committee P-7, on Concrete Sewer Pipe, 
to the Annual Convention, Chicago, 1924. 




512 

TABLE 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


II—PHYSICAL TEST REQUIREMENTS OF 
PLAIN CONCRETE SEWER PIPE. 


Minimum crushing’ strength, 
lbs. per lin. ft. 


Internal 

When tested 

When tested 

Maximum 

diameter, 

by sand bearing 

by three-edge 

absorption. 

inches 

method. 

method. 

per cent. 

4. 

1430 

950 

8 

6. 

.... 1430 

950 

8 

S. 

1430 

950 

8 

10. 

1570 

1050 

8 

12. 

1710 

1140 

8 

15. 

I960 

1310 

8 

18. 

2200 

1470 

8 

21. 

. 2490 

1660 

8 

24. 

.... 3070 

2050 

8 

27. 

3370 

2240 

8 

30. 

. 3690 

2460 

S 

33. 

. 4050 

2700 

8 

36. 

. 4100 

2930 

8 

39. 

. 4710 

3140 

8 

42. 

. 5030 

3350 

8 


Note—The load per foot of pipe shall be determined by 
dividing the total test load by the laying length of the 
pipe in feet. 


TABLE III—DIMENSIONS OF PLAIN CONCRETE 
SEWER PIPE BASED ON CONCRETE HAVING A 
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF NOT LESS 
THAN 4500 LBS. PER SQ. IN. AT 28 DAYS. 


Internal 
diam. (D), 
ins. 

Laying 
length (L), 
ft. 

Inside diam. 
at mouth of 
socket (Ds), 
ins. 

Depth of 
socket (Ls), 
ins. 

Minimum 
taper of 
socket (H). 

Thickness of 
barrel (T), 
ins. 

Thickness of 
socket (Ts). 

4. 

• • 2, 2i/ 2 

6 

li/ 2 

1:20 

9/16 

The 

6. 

• • 2, 2% 

81/4 

2 

1:20 

% 

thickness 

8. 

• • • 2, 2i/ 2 , 3 

10% 

21/4 

1:20 

% 

of the 

10. 

... 2. 2%, 3 

13 

2V 2 

1:20 

% 

socket % 

12. 

. . . 2, 2i/ 2 , 3 

15% 

21/2 

1:20 

1 

in. from 

15. 

• • . 2, 21/a, 3 

18% 

21/2 

1:20 

1% 

its outer 

18. 

. .. 2, 2%, 3 

221/4 

2% 

1:20 

1 y 2 

end shall 

21. 

■ . . 2, 2i/ 2 , 3 

26 

2% 

1:20 

1 % 

be not less 

24. 

. . . 2. 2i/ 2 , 3 

291/2 

3 

1:20 

2 Vs 

than three- 

27.. .. 

3 

331/4 

3% 

1:20 

21/4 

fourths of 

30... . 

r. 

37 

3% 

1:20 

2 % 

the thick- 

33.. .. 

O 

401/4 

4 

1:20 

2 % 

ness of the 

36. . . . 

O 

44 

4 

1:20 

3 

barrel of 

39.. .. 

3 

471% 

4 

1:20 

314 

the pipe. 

42.. . . 

3 

51 

4 

1:20 

31/2 


Note- 

—When pipes are furnished having an 

increase in 


thickness over that given in the last column, then the 
diameter of socket shall be increased by an amount equal 
to twice the increase of thickness of barrel. 
































513 


SEWER PIPE SPECIFICATIONS 

IV. Workmanship and Finish. 

8. Pipe shall be substantially free from fractures, 
large or deep cracks and surface roughness. 

9. The ends of the pipe shall be square with their 
longitudinal axes. 

10. Special shapes shall have a plain spigot end and 
a so-cket end corresponding in all respects with the 
dimensions specified for pipe of the corresponding in¬ 
ternal diameter. Branches shall be furnished to lay the 
same length as straight pipe. All specials shall conform 
in finish to the requirements for straight pipe. 

11. Slants shall have their spigot ends cut at an angle 
of approximately 45 degs. with the longitudinal axis. 

12. Curves shall cover arcs of 90, 45, 22V?, degs., as 
required. They shall conform substantially to the curva¬ 
ture as specified. 

13. Branches shall be furnished with the connection 
or connections of the size or sizes specified, securely and 
completely fastened in the process of manufacture to the 
barrel of the pipe. T-branches and double T-branches 
shall have the branch axis perpendicular to the longi¬ 
tudinal axis of the pipe. Y-branches, double Y-branches 
and V-branches shall have their branches axes approxi¬ 
mately 45 degs. frorn the longitudinal axis of the pipe 
measured from the socket end. All branches shall ter¬ 
minate in sockets and the barrel of the branch shall be 
of sufficient length to permit making a proper joint when 
the connecting pipe is inserted in the branch socket. 

14. Channel, or split pipe, shall be accurate half sec¬ 
tions of the corresponding size of pipe. 

V. Marking. 

15. When shipment of pipe is made in any manner 
other than direct from manufacturer to user, pipe shall 
be so marked that the manufacturer of the pipe can be 
identified. 

VI. Chemical Tests and Requirements. 

16. The purchaser may specify special chemical re¬ 
quirements as to resistance of the pipe to chemical action 
in cases where soils, industrial wastes, sewage or ground 
waters have marked acid or alkaline character, or are of 
abnormally high temperature, and may prescribe chem¬ 
ical tests of the pipe to ascertain whether these special 
requirements are met. Without a special agreement in 
advance, no pipe shall be rejected by reason of its com¬ 
position as determined by ultimate chemical analysis. 


514 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

TABLE IV.—PERMISSIBLE VARIATIONS IN DIMEN¬ 
SIONS OF PLAIN CONCRETE’ SEWER PIPE. 


Limits of Permissible Variation in: 

Depth 

Internal Diameter, of Thickness 


Normal 

Length. 


in 

Socket, 

of Barrel 

Size, 

inches per 

Spigot 

Socket 

inches 

inches 

inches. 

foot (—). 

(±). 

(±). 

(—)• 

(—)• 

4. 

1/ 

Vs 

Vs 

Vs 

1/16 

6. 

... hi 

3/16 

3/16 

V 

1/16 

8. 

... % 

% 

y 4 

y 4 

1/16 

10. 

... Vk 

% 

y 4 

y 4 

1/16 

12. 

... y 4 

% 

y 4 

y 4 

1/16 

15...;... 

... y 4 

y 4 

y 4 

y 4 

3/32 

18. 

... % 

x / 4 

y 4 

y 4 

3/32 

21. 

... % 

5/16 

5/16 

y 4 

Vs 

24. 

... % 

5/16 

5/16 

y 4 

Vs 

27. 

... % 

5/16 

5/16 

y 4 

Vs 

30. 

... % 

% 

% 

y 4 

Vs 

33 . 

... % 

% 

% 

y 4 

% 

36. 

... % 

Vi 

Vi 

y 4 

3/16 

39. 

... % 

Vi 

Vi 

y 4 

3/16 

42. 

... % 

Vi 

Vi 

y 4 

3/16 


NOTE—The minus sign (—) alone indicates that the 
plus variation is not limited; the plus and minus sign 
(±) indicates variation in both excess and deficiency in 
dimension. 

VII. Physical Tests. 

(A) General. 

17. The physical tests of pipe shall include: Load test, 
hydrostatic pressure test and absorption test. 

18. The specimens to be tested shall be selected by 
the purchaser or his representative at the point or points 
designated by him when placing the order. They may 
be selected in such numbers as are judged necessary to 
determine fairly the quality of all the pipe. The manu¬ 
facturer or seller shall furnish specimens for test, with¬ 
out charge, up to l / 2 of 1% of the whole number of pipe 
ordered in each size, and the purchaser shall pay for all 
in excess of that percentage at the same rate as for other 
pipe. 

19. The test specimens shall be full size pipe which 
will in every respect pass the inspection requirements 
hereinafter provided. They shall be free from all visible 
moisture, measured and weighed and the results recorded 
and preserved as shown in Table I. 

20. Failure of 20% of the specimens to meet the re¬ 
quirements of any of the tests imposed, shall result in 
rejection of all the pipe in the shipment or delivery, 
corresponding to the sizes thus failing to comply; except 
that in the event of 20% of the specimens in any size 
failing to meet the requirements, the manufacturer or 
seller may, with the consent of the consumer or pur- 


















SEWER PIPE SPECIFICATIONS 515 

chaser, furnish for test, without charge, additional 
specimens from the same shipment. In case more than 
80% of the specimens tested, including those first tested, 
shall show substantial compliance for each of the various 
tests performed, then the entire shipment or delivery for 
this size shall be accepted, otherwise it shall be rejected. 

(B) Load Tests. 

21. The load test shall be performed either by the 
sand bearing or 3-edge bearing method as hereinafter 
described. Each manufacturer shall be fully equipped 
to test by at least one of these methods. 

22. When sand bearings are used, the specimen shall 
have its upper and lower quadrants measured on the 
center line of the shell, carefully bedded in dry, clean, 
uniformly compacted sand having a minimum thickness 
of at least the mean diameter of the pipe to be tested. 
The sand shall be prevented from lateral flow by being 
placed in rigid frames which shall not come in contact 
with the test specimen. Seepage of sand between the 
pipe and the upper bearing frame may be prevented by 
strips of cloth attached to the lower inside edge of the 
frame. The upper bearing shall be centered over the 
pipe and the load shall be applied centrally thereto 
through a rigid horizontal bearing plate, covering its 
surface but not in contact with the bearing frame. 

23. The sand bearing test may be made without the 
use of a testing machine, by piling weights directly on a 
platform resting on the top bearing plate, provided, how¬ 
ever, that the weight shall be piled symmetrically about 
a vertical line through the center of the pipe, and that 
the platform shall not be allowed to touch the top bear¬ 
ing frame. 

24. When three-edge bearings are used, the ends of 
each specimen of pipe shall be accurately marked in 
halves of the circumference prior to the test. The lower 
bearings shall consist of two wooden strips with vertical 
sides, each strip having its interior top corner rounded 
to a radius of approximately in. They shall be 
straight, and shall be securely fastened to a rigid block 
with their interior vertical sides 1 in. apart. The upper 
bearing shall be a wooden block, straight and true from 
end to end. The bearings shall be centered on the 
diametrically opposite markings previously made and the 
test load shall be applied through the upper bearing block 
in such a way as to produce a uniform distribution of 
the load throughout the length of the pipe and leave the 
bearing free to move in a vertical plane passing midway 
between the lower bearings. 


516 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

25. In testing a pipe which is “out of line’’ the lines 
of the bearings chosen shall be those which appear to 
give most favorable conditions for fair bearings. 

26. Any prime mover or hand power which will apply 
the load at a uniform rate of about 2000 lbs. per min., 
or in increments of no£ more than 100 lbs. at the same 
rate, may be used in making the test. The testing ma¬ 
chine shall Te substantial and rigid throughout, so that 
the distribution of the load will not be affected appre¬ 
ciably by the deformation or yielding of any part. The 
load shall be applied continuously until failure occurs. 
The load at the time of failure shall be observed and 
recorded. 

(C) Hydrostatic Test. 

27. Sound full size pipe shall be tested for leakage 
under internal hydrostatic pressure. 

28. The ends of the pipe shall be closed by water¬ 
tight bulkheads, and internal water pressure, as meas¬ 
ured by a standardized gauge, applied to the specimen 
as follows: 


5 lbs. per sq. in. for 5 min. 

10 lbs. per sq. in. for 10 min. 

15 lbs. per sq. in. for 15 min. • 

29. The specimens shall be capable of withstanding 
these pressures and shall show no active leakage during 
the final 5 minutes of the 15-lb. test period. Moisture 
appearing on the surface of the pipe in the form of 
patches or beads, adhering to the surface, shall not be 
-considered leakage. 

(D) Absorption Test. 

30. The specimens shall be sound pieces with all edges 
broken, and may be from pipe broken in the crushing 
or other tests. They shall be from 12 to 20 sq. ins. in 
area and shall be as nearly square as they can be readily 
prepared. 

31. Each specimen shall be marked so that it may be 
identified with the pipe from which it was taken. The 
marking shall be applied so that the pigment used shall 
not cover more than 1% of the total superficial area ol 
the specimen. 

32. Preparatory to the absorption test, the specimen 
shall be first weighed and then dried in a drier or oven 
at a temperature of not less than 230 degs. F. (110 degs. 
C.) to constant weight. 

33. The balance used shall be sensitive to 0.5 g. when 
loaded with 1 kg. and weighings shall be read to the 


SEWER PIPE SPECIFICATIONS 517 

nearest gram. When other than metric weights are 
used, the same degree of accuracy shall be obtained. 

34. The specimen, after drying, cooling and weigh¬ 
ing, shall be placed in a suitable receptacle, covered with 
distilled water or rain water, and boiled for 5 hours, 
and then cooled in water to a final temperature of 50 to 
59 degs. F. (10 to 15 degs. C.). 

35. The specimen shall be allowed to drain for not 
more than 1 minute, the superficial moisture removed 
by towel or blotting, and then weighed. 

36. The absorption shall be considered as the increase 
in weight over the dry weight and shall be calculated 
and recorded as a percentage thereof. The results shall 
be reported for each specimen together with the average 
for each size of pipe represented. 

(E) Physical Test Requirements. 

37. Concrete pipe shall meet the load and absorption 
test requirements as given in Table II. 

VIII. Inspection. 

38. All pipe shall be subjected to inspection at the 
factory, trench or other point of delivery by a com¬ 
petent inspector employed by the consumer or pur¬ 
chaser. The purposes of the inspection shall be to cull 
and reject pipe which, independent of the physical tests 
herein specified, fail to meet the requirements of these 
specifications. 

39. Pipe shall be subject to rejection on account of 
any of the following: 

(a) Variations in any dimension exceeding the permis¬ 
sible variations given in Table IV. 

(b) Fracture or cracks passing through the shell or 
socket, except that a single crack at either end of a pipe 
not exceeding 2 ins. in length or a single fracture in the 
socket not exceeding 3 ins. in width nor 2 ins. in depth 
will not be deemed cause for rejection unless these defects 
exist in more than 5% of the entire shipment or delivery. 

(c) Defects which indicate imperfect mixing and 
molding. 

(d) Variations of more than y s in. per linear foot in 
alignment of a pipe intended to be straight. 

(e) Failure to give a clear ringing sound when a dry 
pipe placed on end is tapped with a light hammer. 

(f) Insecure attachment of branches or spurs. 

40. All rejected pipe shall be plainly marked by the 
inspector and shall be replaced by the manufacturer or 
seller with pipe which meet the requirements of these 
specifications, without additional -cost to the consumei 
or purchaser. 


CHAPTER LXI. 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR REINFORCED 
CONCRETE SEWER PIPE. 

American Concrete Institute Tentative Standard 
Specifications for Reinforced Concrete 
Sewer Pipe.* 

I. General. 

1. These specifications apply to reinforced concrete 
pipe intended to be used for the conveyance of sewage, 
industrial wastes and storm water. Pipe furnished un¬ 
der these specifications shall be of a single class. 

2. The acceptability of pipe shall be determined by 
the purchaser; by the results of the load tests herein¬ 
after specified if and when required and by inspection, 
to determine whether the pipe comply with the specifica¬ 
tions as to dimensions, shape and freedom from ex¬ 
ternal and internal defects. 

II. Materials. 

3. Pipe shall be manufactured from concrete in which 
steel has been imbedded in such manner that the steel 
and concrete shall assist each other in taking stress. 

By concrete is meant a suitable mixture of Portland 
cement, mineral aggregates and water, hardened by 
hydraulic chemical action. 

4. Portland cement shall meet the requirements of 
the standard specifications and tests for portland cement 
(Serial Designation, C9-21) of the American Society 
for Testing Materials. 

5. Reinforcement may consist of wire or fabric which 
will meet the requirements of the tentative specifications 
for cold-drawn steel wire for concrete reinforcement 
(Serial Designation: A 82-21 T) of the American So¬ 
ciety for Testing Materials, or of rods and bars which 
meet the requirements of the standard specifications, for 
billet steel concrete reinforcement bars (Serial Designa¬ 
tion A-15-15). 

6. The materials shall possess such physical proper¬ 
ties that when molded into pipe and properly cured, the 
product will be strong, durable and serviceable, free from 
objectionable defects and in compliance with these speci¬ 
fications and tests. 

7. The aggregate shall be so graded and proportioned 

"■Presented by Committee P-7, on Concrete Sewer Pipe, 
to the Annual Convention, Chicago, l‘J24. 




SEWER PIPE SPECIFICATIONS 519 

and thoroughly mixed with such a proportion of cement 
and water as to produce a homogeneous concrete mix 
of such quality that the pipe will meet the test require¬ 
ments and inspection hereinafter provided. 

III. Design. 

8. The shell thickness and amount of reinforcement 
shall be such that the pipe will meet the load test re¬ 
quirements herein provided. 

9. The reinforcement shall extend throughout the 
barrel of the pipe. It shall be assembled into units so 
designed that they may be readily placed and maintained 
of true, exact shape and proper position within the pipe 
form during the manufacturing process. 

10. The ends of reinforced concrete pipe shall be so 
formed that when the pipe are laid together and the 
joints cemented, they shall make a continuous and uni¬ 
form line of pipe with a smooth and regular interior sur¬ 
face. The joints shall be of such a design that when 
cemented they will prevent leakage and infiltration as 
well as appreciable irregularities in the flow line of the 
sewer. 

11. Reinforcement shall be placed not less than Y in. 
from the surface of the pipe shell. 

IV. Workmanship and Finish. 

12. Pipe shall be substantially free from fractures, 
large or deep cracks and surface roughness. The ends 
of pipe shall be square with their longitudinal axes. 

13. Variations of the internal diameter shall not ex¬ 
ceed 2%. The shell thickness shall not be less than that 
intended in the design by more than 5% at any point. 

V. Marking. 

14. When shipment of pipe is made in any manner 
other than direct from manufacturer to user, pipe shall 
be so marked that the manufacturer of the pipe can be 
identified. The date of manufacture shall be plainly 
marked on the pipe in all cases. 

VI. Load Test. 

15. The test specimens shall be full size pipe which 
will in every respect pass the inspection requirements 
hereinafter provided. 

16. The specimens to be tested shall be selected by 
the purchaser or his representative at the point or points 
designated by him when placing the order. The manu¬ 
facturer shall furnish, for testing purposes and at his 
expense, one pipe of each size included in the order; the 
purchaser bearing all expense of testing such pipe. 


520 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


Should additional tests be made upon the demand of the 
purchaser or manufacturer, as hereinafter provided, then 
cost of such additional test specimens and the expense 
of testing shall be borne by the party making such 
demand. 

17. Should the test specimens furnished by the manu¬ 
facturer meet the test requirements, then all pipe repre¬ 
sented by such specimens shall be accepted; provided, 
however, that the purchaser shall have the right to re¬ 
quire an additional test in any size or sizes of pipe. 

Should any of the specimens first tested fail to meet 
the test requirements, then the manufacturer shall have 
the right to submit an additional test of the size or sizes 
of pipe which have failed. 

In either case, when an additional test is made in any 
size of pipe, such test shall consist of three pipe or mul¬ 
tiple thereof including the pipe first tested; if two-thirds 
of the pipe so tested shall meet the test requirements, 
then all pipe represented by such test shall be accepted, 
otherwise they shall be rejected. 

18. The load test shall be performed either by the 
sand bearing or three-edge bearing methods as herein¬ 
after described. 

19. When sand bearings are used, the specimen shall 
have its upper and lower quadrants, measured on the 
center line of the shell, carefully bedded in dry, clean, 
uniformly compacted sand having a minimum thickness 
of at least one-quarter the mean diameter of the pipe to 
be tested. The sand shall be prevented from lateral 
flow by being placed in rigid frames which shall not 
come in contact with the test specimen. Seepage of 
sand between the pipe and the upper bearing frame may 
be presented by strips of cloth attached to the lower 
inside edge of the frame. 

The upper bearing shall be centered over the pipe and 
the load shall be applied centrally thereto through a rigid 
horizontal bearing plate, covering its surface but not in 
contact with the bearing frame. 

20. The sand bearing test may be made without the 
use of a testing machine by piling weights directly on a 
platform resting on the top bearing plates, provided, 
however, that the weights shall be placed symmetricallv 
about a vertical line through the center of the pipe and 
that the platform shall not be allowed to touch the top 
bearing frame. 

21. When 3-edge bearings are used, the ends of each 
specimen of pipe shall be accurately marked in halves 
of the circumference prior to the test. The lower bear¬ 
ings shall consist of two wooden strips with vertical 


SEWER PIPE SPECIFICATIONS 


521 


sides, each strip having its interior top corner rounded 
to a radius of approximately in. They shall be 

straight and shall be securely fastened to a rigid block 
with their interior vertical sides 1 in. apart. The upper 
bearing shall be a wooden block, straight and true from 
end to end. The bearings shall be centered on the 
diametrically opposite markings previously made and the 
test load shall be applied through the upper bearing block 
in such a way as to produce a uniform distribution at 
the load throughout the length of the pipe and to leave 
the bearing free to move in a vertical plane passing- 
midway between the lower bearings. 

22. Any prime mover or hand power which will apply 
the load at a uniform rate of about 2000 lbs. per min., 
or in increments of not more than 100 lbs., at the same 
rate, may be used in making the test. The testing ma¬ 
chine shall be substantial and rigid throughout, so that 
the distribution of the load will not be affected appre¬ 
ciably by the deformation or yielding of any part. The 
load shall be applied continuously until the ultimate 
strength of the pipe is reached. The load at ultimate 
strength and also when the first crack appears shall be 
observed and recorded. 

23. In testing pipe which is “out of line” the lines 
of the bearings chosen shall be from those which appear 
to give the most favorable conditions for fair test. 

24. The test specimens shall show an ultimate strength 
not less than that given in Table I for the various sizes 
and method of test therein stated and shall show no 
clearly visible crack extending the full length of pipe 
when tested to one-half the ultimate load. 

TABLE I.—ULTIMATE STRENGTH TEST REQUIRE¬ 
MENTS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SEWER 
PIPE AT NOT LESS THAN 28 DAYS. 

Ultimate load in lbs. 
per lin. ft. of Pipe. 



Three-edge 

Sand 

Internal Diameter, inches 

bearing. 

bearing. 

24. 

. 3400 

5100 

27. 

. 3760 

5640 

80. 

. 4120 

6180 

32. 

. 4460 

6690 

36. 

. 4800 

7200 

42. 

. 5420 

8130 

48. 

. 6000 

9000 

54. 

. 6400 

9600 

60. 

. 6750 

10100 

66. 

. 7000 

10500 

72. 

. 7200 

10800 


NOTE—The load per foot of pipe shall be determined 
by dividing the total test load by the laying length of the 
pipe in feet. 













522 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

VII. Inspection. 

25. All pipe shall be subject to inspection at the fac¬ 
tory, trench or other point of delivery by a competent 
inspector employed by the consumer or purchaser. The 
purpose of the inspection shall be to cull and reject pipe 
which, independent of the physical tests herein specified, 
fail to meet the requirements of these specifications. 

26. Pipe shall be subject to rejection on account of 
any of the following: 

(a) Variations in any dimension exceeding the permis¬ 
sible variations given in Sec. 13. 

(b) Fractures or cracks passing through the shell, 
except that a single crack at either end of the pipe, not 
exceeding 2 ins. in length, or a single fracture not ex¬ 
ceeding 2 ins. in depth, nor extending more than 10% 
around the circumference, will not be considered cause 
for rejection, unless these defects exist in more than 5% 
of the entire consignment. 

(c) Defects which indicate imperfect mixing and 
molding. 

(d) Exposure of the reinforcement when such exposure 
would indicate that the reinforcement is misplaced. 

27. All rejected pipe shall be plainly marked by the 
inspector and shall be replaced by the manufacturer or 
seller with pipe which meets the requirements of these 
specifications, without additional cost to the consumer 
or purchaser. 


i 


CHAPTER LXII. 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR REINFORCED 

CONCRETE PRESSURE PIPE. 

Specifications for “Lock Joint” Reinforced Concrete 
Pressure Pipe with Lead and Steel Joint. 


Pipe. 

Pipe will be made according to the design shown on 
the blueprint submitted. All pipe will be made in 12-ft. 
lengths, with wall thicknesses as follows: 


Diameter of pipe, ins. 

36 

42 

48 

54 

60 

66 


Wall thickness, ins. 


4 



5 and 5 y 2 
5y 2 and 6 

6 and 6y 2 


Pipe are to be cast on end in accurately made steel 
and cast iron molds, so constructed as to mold the pipe 
accurately and true to dimension. 


Concrete. 


Concrete used in the manufacture of the pipe will 
consist of 1 part cement, P /2 parts of sand and 
parts of crushed stone or clean gravel, or a combination 
of these, and shall be the best material available locally. 
Crusher dust may be used to replace a portion of the 
sand for the purpose of obtaining greater smoothness and 
density, and for the purpose of density the above pro¬ 
portions may be varied, but in no case shall the cement 
content be less than one-fourth of the total volume of 
sand or stone. 

Reinforcement. 

All pipe are to be reinforced with circumferential 
steel in such cross-sectional area per foot that at the 
working pressure on the pipe it shall not be stressed to 
more than 12,000 lbs. per sq. in. In computing these 
areas no allowance shall be given for the strength of 
the concrete. The reinforcement cages shall be made up 
in units and the galvanized steel joint rings attached to 
the longitudinal reinforcement of the cage. 

Casting the Pipe. 

Pipe are to be cast on end and the concrete is to be 
mixed in comparatively small batches in a mixer of the 









524 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


“Little Wonder” type. Water shall be put into the 
mixer first, cement second, stone or gravel third, and 
the sand last. The batch is to be mixed until it assumes 
a uniform color, showing that it is thoroughly mixed. 
It is then to be dumped into a receiving hopper or 
bucket, where opportunity for inspection is given. The 
bucket shall be so constructed that when the concrete 
leaves it the concrete gets another turn and does not 
allow the material to segregate, nor allow the concrete 
to be dumped so suddenly as to tend to distort the mold. 

After the molds have been filled they are to be cov¬ 
ered with canvas covers and moist steam circulated 
around the molds. The next morning after the pipe 
have been poured these covers are to be removed, to 
allow forms to be taken from the pipe, and after the 
forms are removed the pipe are again to be covered 
and the steam turned back on. and shall remain in this 
condition until the third day, when they may be picked 
up and stored. 

Laying and Jointing. 

Pipe shall be laid and backfilled before the joints are 
finally made. The bell of the pipe shall be formed by 
the projection of a galvanized steel cylinder, covered on 
its exterior surface by reinforced concrete. The spigot 
shall be formed by a special section of steel, having a 
projecting ridge and covered on its inner surface with 
reinforced concrete. 

When the pipe are laid the bell and spigot shall tele¬ 
scope in such a way as to form a wedge-shaped cavity 
between the two galvanized steel surfaces, into which 
cavity there shall be securely caulked a wedge-shaped, 
fibre-filled lead gasket, which gasket shall be caulked 
from the interior of the pipe. After the lead has been 
caulked the interior of the joint shall be filled with 
mortar or neat cement, and finished off to make a 
smooth interior to the pipe line. 

The gasket shall consist of a fibre-filled lead of spe¬ 
cial section, as shown on the drawing, which shall be 
submitted by the bidder or pipe manufacturer, cut to its 
proper length and sweated together, making a continu- 


CHAPTER LXIII. 

SPECIFICATIONS FOR STONE CON¬ 
CRETE CONDUITS. 

Adopted by American Railway Engineering 

Association. 

1. Material. Stone conduit shall be made of lime¬ 
stone screenings or sand which will pass through a 
screen of in. mesh and approved make of Portland 
cement in the proportion of 434 :1, properly moistened 
with water and shall be formed by tamping in cylin¬ 
drical molds. 

2. Dimensions. Conduit shall be made in lengths 
of 5 ft. with 54-in. walls and 3% to 4 T /2-in. round bore. 

3. Workmanship, (a) Conduit shall be symmetrical 
throughout, straight, true, smooth, free from cracks, 
air holes, uneven surfaces or other imperfections which 
will injuriously affect it. The ends shall be perpen¬ 
dicular to the bore. 

(b) Conduit shall be cured for not less than 8 weeks 
after removal from the mold. For the first 6 weeks it 
shall be kept wet by sprinkling and then allowed to dry 
in the air for at least 2 weeks. 

4. Joints, (a) Conduit when thoroughly cured shall 
be turned, for a distance of M in. on each end, sufficient 
to secure an exact diameter concentric with the bore, 
but which shall not reduce the thickness of the wall 
given in Section 2 by more than 1/16 in. 

(b) With each conduit there shall be supplied a suit¬ 
able metal sleeve which will fit tightly over the ends of 
adjacent conduits to hold them in place and to secure 
perfect alinement. 

5. Short Lengths. Pieces of conduit less than the 
standard 5-ft. length will be accepted, not to exceed 
10% of the total ordered, provided the ends are cut 
square, dressed and turned for metal sleeves, but no 
conduit will be accepted less than 2 l / 2 ft. long. 1 

6. Inspection. (a) The railroad may inspect the 
conduit at any time during the process of manufacture 
and shall be furnished free of cost the necessary tools 
and appliances for making such tests as are necessary 
have been met. 

(b) Conduit offered for inspection shall be factory 
run from which no conduit of a superior quality has 
been removed. 




526 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


(c) The railroad shall be given advance notice of 
completion of conduit to permit it to arrange for in¬ 
spection. 

7. Tests, (a) Conduits shall permit the passage 
from end to end of a mandrel 3 ft. long and in. less 
than the nominal diameter of the bore. 

(b) Samples of 5-ft. lengths of conduit shall be 
selected at random and after immersion for 24 hours in 
water shall show an increase in weight of not more 
than 9%. 

(c) The presence of cracks shall be determined by 
sounding each piece with a steel hammer or its ap¬ 
proved equivalent. Pieces which fail to give a clear 
metallic ring shall be considered defective. 

(d) Conduit which fails to meet all of the require¬ 
ments of these specifications shall be rejected. 

8. Installation, (a) Conduit line shall be encased in 
concrete 4 ins. thick on top, 3 ins. on the sides and a 
minimum thickness of 4 ins. for the full width of the 
trench, except where ledge rock is encountered, in which 
case the concrete foundation may be omitted and the 
bottom of the trench leveled with cement mortar. Con¬ 
duits shall be laid with a minimum separation of 1 in., 
both horizontally and vertically, and the joints shall be 
staggered so that the joints of adjacent sections will be 
separated by at least 3 ins. 

(b) In ending conduits only full lengths shall be 
used in the lower tier at the entrance to splicing cham¬ 
bers. Short lengths where necessary shall be inserted 
further out in the section. 

(c) Where work is suspended leaving incompleted 
sections, the open ends of the conduits shall be plugged 
with tapered wood or other approved plug conforming 
accurately to the shape of the bore and so formed that 
it cannot be forced entirely within the opening. 

(d) During construction work a mandrel 3 ft. long 
and }/% in. less than the nominal bore shall be drawn 
through the conduits as they are laid. 

(e) In other respects the methods of laying stone 
conduits shall correspond to the American Railway En¬ 
gineering Association specifications for fibre conduits. 

1 Since these specifications were prepared a new machine 
has been developed for making concrete conduit in lengths 
of 3 ft. and the machine and conduit are satisfactory. 



CHAPTER LXIV. 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR TWO-COAT 
STUCCO ON BLOCK AND 
TILE WALLS. 

Concrete Block and Tile Wall Construction. 

Concrete block and tile should meet the requirements 
of the tentative standard specifications of the American 
Concrete Institute. Sample block from those delivered 
to the building may be tested by the architect if desired, 
and if the samples fail to meet the requirements, the 
entire shipment may be rejected. The tests to be made 
at a recognized testing laboratory in the methods pre¬ 
scribed by the American Concrete Institute. 

Concrete block and tile should be laid in portland 
cement mortar mixed in the proportion of 1 sack of 
Portland cement to 3 cu. ft. of sand to which may be 
added hydrated lime not to exceed 10 lbs. for each sack 
of cement in the mixture. All joints to be cut flush 
with the wall surface. The surface of block and tile 
to be stuccoed should be rough and of coarse texture. 

Portland Cement Stucco. 

The whole of the outside walls, including porches, 
chimneys, piers, etc., shall be covered with portland ce¬ 
ment stucco applied directly to the concrete block or tile, 
down to the level of first floor belt course, soldier course 
or other stopping point as shown. Below this point the 
walls to be rendered down to grade in portland cement 
plaster about in. thick trowelled smooth. 

Metal Lathing —The soffit of eaves, ceilings of porches 
and other parts so shown to be lathed with galvanized 
or painted metal lath weighing not less than 3.4 lbs. per 
sq. yd. secured with \%-m. galvanized stapies made of 
14 gage wire and driven tightly to penetrate at least 
% in. Lath to be lapped at least 1 in. at junctions and 
laps to be at least 12 ins. away from corners. Over all 
flashings place a strip of metal lath at least 8 ins. wide, 
nailed into joints of wall to form key for stucco. 

Preparation of Wall —Before applying the stucco, the 
wall surface should be brushed free from all dust, dirt 
and loose particles and thoroughly wetted and should 
be in this condition when the mortar is applied. 

Aggregate —Aggregate for undercoat shall be thor¬ 
oughly clean sand, graded from fine to coarse grains, 



528 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


with the coarse predominating; shall be free from loam, 
salt, vegetable and other deleterious matter. Aggregate 
for finish coat shall be thoroughly clean -coarse white 
quartz or silica sand, or white marble screenings, or 
gravel grit, or pink granite screenings, etc., as architect 
selects. Samples are to be submitted for his approval. 

Color Pigments —When color is to be produced other 
than by the use of colored aggregate, mineral colors only 
shall be employed. Coloring matter shall be dry color 
pigments of the highest degree of purity, of substantially 
the same specific gravity as the cement, proof against 
the action of lime, cement or the action of the elements 
and guaranteed by the plasterer to stand without fading 
for 5 years. 

Water —Water shall be clean and free from acids or 
strong alkalies. 

Mortar —Mortar for first coat shall be composed of 
1 part of portland cement, 3 parts of sand. Hydrated 
lime if used must not in any case exceed 20% by volume 
of the cement used. 

Mortar for finishing coat shall be composed of 1 part 
of portland cement and 3 parts of white sand or other 
aggregate required to- obtain finish selected by owner. 
If finishing coat shall be colored it shall be brought to 
the tone selected by the addition of dry color in quantity 
not exceeding 10% of the weight of the cement. Pro¬ 
portions stated are by volume and 1 bag (94 lbs.) of 
cement is to be considered as 1 cu. ft. 

Mixing —Mixing shall be done on a water-tight mortar 
box, the different constituents thoroughly mixed dry to 
a uniform -color, water then added to obtain the proper 
consistency and the whole turned over until the mass is 
uniform in color and consistency. There shall not be 
mixed at one time more mortar than will be used 
within 30 minutes. No retempered mortar shall be 
used under any circumstances. The dry color in the 
finishing coat shall be very carefully weighed or meas¬ 
ured and thoroughly mixed with the sand. The cement 
and lime shall then be added and the entire mass thor¬ 
oughly mixed by shoveling, from one side of the plat¬ 
form to the other, through a V\-vn. mesh screen. When 
the batch is of uniform color the water shall be added. 

Mortar Application —Stucco shall be applied in two 
coats, having a combined thickness of in. beyond the 
normal masonry line. The plastering shall be carried on 
continuously in one general direction, without allowing 
the mortar to dry at the edge. Where this is impossible, 
the joints shall be made at a break, an opening or other 
natural division of the surface. Stucco shall not be 


STUCCO SPECIFICATIONS 


529 


applied when the temperature is below freezing, or when, 
during falling temperatures, thermometer has reached 
40 degs. F. The first coat shall be well pressed on to 
secure a good bond. The undercoat shall be cross- 
scratched before the initial set has taken place and shall 
be thoroughly wetted before the last coat is applied. 

The finish coat shall not be applied until at least 1 
week after the first coat and shall be applied and finished 
as hereinafter specified. 

The finishing «coat shall be kept moist for at least 2 
days, either by gently spraying with water after the 
mortar has hardened sufficiently to permit it or by hang¬ 
ing wet burlap or other fabric over the surface. 

Surface Finish —There are many methods of finishing 
stucco surfaces, therefore contractor should submit sam¬ 
ples to architect for selection. The following specifica¬ 
tions apply to the various finishes: 

Surface Finishes. 

Stippled Finish —A stippled finish is obtained by 
lightly patting the finishing coat with a brush of broom- 
straw to give an even, stippled surface. 

Rough Cast or Spatter Dash —A mixture of 1 sack 
of cement to 3 cu. ft. of fine aggregate is thrown forcibly 
against the newly placed finishing surface to produce a 
rough, uniform texture when viewed from a distance of 
20 ft. A variety of spatter dash finish can be secured by 
using colored aggregate. 

Pebble Dash —Before the finishing coat has begun to 
harden, clean, round pebbles or other material as se¬ 
lected, not smaller than *4 i n - or larger than % in., pre¬ 
viously wetted, are thrown forcibly against the wall so 
as to imbed themselves in the fresh mortar. They 
should be distributed uniformly over the surface of the 
final codt and pushed back into the mortar with a clean 
wood float. No rubbing should be done after the peb¬ 
bles are imbedded. 

Exposed Aggregate —The finishing coat is composed 
of an approved selected coarse sand, crushed marble or 
granite or other special material, in the proportion given 
for finishing coats. Within 24 hours after being applied 
and trowelled to an even surface, it is scrubbed with a 
stiff brush and water. If the stucco is too hard, a solu¬ 
tion of 1 part hydrochloric acid in 4 parts of water 
by volume can be used. After the scrubbing, all traces 
of the acid should be removed by thorough spraying 
with water from a hose. 

Sand Floated —A sand floated finish is obtained by 
rubbing the finishing coat wuth a circular motion of a 


530 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


wood float, a little sand being added to slightly roughen 
the surface. This floating should be done when the 
mortar has partly hardened. 

Sand Sprayed —A sand sprayed finish is obtained by 
spraying on with as much force as possible by means of 
a long fiber brush or whisk broom, a creamy mixture of 
equal parts of cement and sand, mixed fresh at least 
every 30 minutes and kept well stirred until used. This 
treatment should be applied before the finishing coat has 
attained its early hardening, that is, within 3 to 5 hours. 
The addition of hydrated lime not to exceed 10% of the 
weight of the cement in the mixture will produce lighter 
shades of finish. 

Smooth Finish —The finish coat should contain all the 
material desired in the finished surface. The troweling 
of the finish coat should be continued until the desired 
smoothness and texture is obtained, but should be the 
least possible to produce this surfa-ce finish. Particular 
attention to proper curing methods is absolutely neces¬ 
sary to obtain the best results with this type of finish. 

Sponge Finish —Immediately after the finishing coat 
has been brought to an even surface, a clean, soft pine 
float is pressed down onto the surface and withdrawn, 
care being taken not to separate the surface coat from 
the undercoat. 

Samples —Samples of the surface finish shall be laid 
up well in advance of the work and the approved sample 
shall be carefully preserved during the execution of 
the work. 

Window Frames —Stucco shall be well worked against 
the frames and the contractor shall see that staff beads 
on frames are removed before plastering is started. 

Protection —All materials shall be properly protected 
while stored at the site and shall not be placed on the 
ground. Fresh stucco shall be protected agamst the 
weather. No stucco in which cracks, pits, streaks, dis¬ 
colorations or other defects may occur will be accepted. 


CHAPTER LXV. 


BUILDING CODES AND ORDINANCES. 

Where city building codes do not contain pro¬ 
vision for the use of quality concrete building 
units an injustice is done the industry and also to 
the citizens of the city or cities. Where strict but 
fair building codes have been adopted requiring 
the testing of concrete building units the industry 
has been benefited thereby, as ignorant or un¬ 
scrupulous manufacturers have been eliminated 
from the field. Herein are presented two city 
ordinances regulating the use of concrete block 
and concrete tile in two cities, namely, Camden, 
N. J., population 116,000 in 1920, and Cincin¬ 
nati, O., population 401,000 in 1920. These ordi¬ 
nances could be adopted by cities of any size and 
would, when enforced, result in the construction 
of fire-safe, durable, comfortable and economical 
homes. 

Cincinnati, on April 1, adopted a new ordinance 
relating to concrete building units. The ordinance 
will serve to answer questions which have been 
asked by concrete products manufacturers who 
desire to promote the passage of a similar or¬ 
dinance in other cities and towns. Tests and 
standards of quality are provided for which will 
insure the production of high-grade units, and 
with which each manufacturer must comply be¬ 
fore certificate of approval is granted by the 
building department. 

Considerably wider use of concrete block and 
structural tile for building construction work is 
authorized by the ordinance; and it is confidently 
expected that its adoption will result in not only a 
marked increase in the use of concrete block and 
structural tile in Cincinnati, but also a decided 
growth of confidence among local architects and 



532 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


builders in the concrete products industry as well 
builders in the concrete products industry and in¬ 
crease appreciation of the adaptability and use¬ 
fulness of concrete block and tile as permanent, 
ii re-resistive and economical building units. 

Cincinnati's Concrete Block Ordinance 

Be It Ordained by the Council of the City of Cincin¬ 
nati, State of Ohio: 

Sec. 1. That original Sec. 433 of the Code of Or¬ 
dinances of the City of Cincinnati be and the same is 
hereby amended to read as follows : 

Sec. 433. Definition. For the purpose of this or¬ 
dinance, all masonry building units made of portland 
cement, water and fine aggregate, or fine and coarse ag¬ 
gregate consisting of sand, gravel, crushed stone, crushed 
air-cooled blast furnace slag, steam boiler cinders, or 
other equivalent material suitably graded from fine to 
coarse, shall be deemed concrete block. Hydrated lime 
not to exceed 10% of the volume of the cement used 
may be added to the mixture of the aforementioned ma¬ 
terial. 

Sec. 433-1. Materials and Proportions. The portland 
cement shall conform to the Standard Specifications and 
Tests for Portland Cement adopted by the American 
Society for Testing Materials. 

All aggregate must be clean and free from deleterious 
substances and approved by the commissioner of build¬ 
ings. The concrete block when completed must be sound 
and well seasoned. Materials shall be so proportioned 
that the block at the age of 28 days, or when delivered 
to the building site, will meet the requirements of the 
compression and absorption tests hereinafter specified. 

Sec. 433-2. Identification or Branding. Every concrete 
block used in the city of Cincinnati for building con¬ 
struction purposes shall have designated thereoji such 
mark of identification as will indicate the name of the 
manufacturer and the principal place of business of such 
manufacturer, and a facsimile of such mark of identi¬ 
fication, together with the name and principal place of 
business of such manufacturer shall be filed with and 
approved by the commissioner of buildings upon the 
adoption of same by the manufacturer. 

Sec. 433-3. Tests Required. Samples of all concrete 
block shall be subjected to a compression test, and all 
concrete block which will be exposed to soil or weather 
in the finished work (without stucco, plaster or other 
suitable protective covering) shall be subjected to an 


BUILDING CODES 


533 


absorption test before their use is approved by the build¬ 
ing department. These tests must be made on at least 
three samples in any testing laboratory of recognized 
standing acceptable to the commissioner of buildings, 
and shall be paid for by the manufacturer. Samples may 
be used for the absorption test, where the absorption 
test is required, before they are used for the compres¬ 
sion test. A certified copy of the results of each labora¬ 
tory test shall be filed with the commissioner of build¬ 
ings for his records. 

A plant for the production of concrete building units 
must be established for operation before official tests 
are made. 

Sec. 433-4. Methods for Making Tests. For these 
tests samples shall be selected at random, from the manu¬ 
facturer’s stock or from block delivered to the building 
site, by a representative of the building department. The 
samples shall be of the regular size used in construction 
and must be marked or sealed for identification by the 
department of buildings. In case of failure of the first 
three specimens to meet the requirements, additional 
tests may be made as provided above until the specimens 
meet the requirements herein provided. 

These tests shall be made in accordance with the stand¬ 
ard methods prescribed bv the American Concrete Insti¬ 
tute in its standard specifications for concrete building 
block and concrete building tile. 

The commissioner of buildings shall require at least 
every six months a laboratory test and certification of 
some of the product made by every manufacturer cover¬ 
ing samples selected by a representative of the building 
department. The commissioner of buildings may require 
tests to be made on samples selected by him whenever 
in his opinion there is doubt as to whether the product 
meets the standards prescribed by this ordinance. 

Sec. 433-5. Standards of Quality. Hollow and 2- 
piece block which are to be exposed to soil or weather 
in the finished work (without stucco, plaster or other 
suitable protective covering) shall have an ultimate com¬ 
pressive strength as determined from the average of 
three test specimens of 1000 lbs. per sq. in. on the block 
as designed to be used in the wall. None of the test 
specimens shall have a strength of less than 700 lbs. per 
sq. in. Solid block so exposed to soil or weather in the 
finished work shall have an ultimate compressive 
strength, as determined from the average of three test 
specimens, of 1500 lbs. per sq. in. on the gross cross- 
sectional area and must not fall below 1200 lbs. per sq. 
in. in any test. 


534 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


Hollow and 2-piece block which are protected in the 
finished work with stucco, plaster or other suitable pro¬ 
tective covering shall have an ultimate compressive 
strength, as determined from the average of three test 
specimens, of 750 lbs. per sq. in. on the gross cross-sec¬ 
tional area and must not fall below 600 lbs. per sq. in. 
in any test. Solid block so protected shall have an ul¬ 
timate compressive strength of 1200 lbs. per sq. in. on 
the gross cross-sectional area and must not fall below 
1000 lbs. per sq. in. in any test. 

The absorption of three test samples when dried to a 
constant weight at a temperature between 212 and 250 
clegs. F. and immersed in clean water for a period of 
24 hours shall not exceed 14 lbs. per cu. ft. of concrete 
(actual volume) contained in any block. 

Sec. 433-6. Use. Hollow concrete building units 
which have the approval of the building commissioner 
may be used in building construction in accordance with 
Sections 433-7, 433-8, 433-9 and 433-10 wherever solid 
masonry is permitted. Hollow concrete building units 
may be used for fire walls in accordance with the regu¬ 
lations of the Ohio State Board of Building Standards. 

Sec. 433-7. Working Stresses. The maximum allow¬ 
able working stress on masonry walls, piers and pilasters 
of hollow concrete block shall not exceed one-eighth of 
the average crushing strength of the block when tested in 
the position used in the wall, and never more than 250 
lbs. per sq. in. gross area. 

The maximum allowable working stress on masonry 
walls, piers and pilasters of solid concrete block shall 
not exceed one-sixth of the average crushing strength 
of the block, and never more than 250 lbs. per sq. in. 
gross area. 

Where the height of the piers between lateral supports 
exceeds five times the least lateral dimensions, the max¬ 
imum allowable working stress shall be the reduced unit 
stress obtained by the use of the following formula: 

8 = c(i.*_- 'L') 

\ 20 D J 

S—Reduced allowable stress. 

C —Maximum allowable stress. 

H=Height in feet. 

I)—Least lateral dimension in feet. 

Sec. 433-8. Thickness and Height of Walls. Walls of 
buildings of the residential class shall have a minimum 
thickness in inches as shown in the following table. 

In no case, however, shall the computed stress due to 


BUILDING CODES 535 

combined dead and live load exceed the working stress 
provided for by Sec. 433-7. 

Thickness of Walls for Residential Buildings. 

Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. 
Max. height above first floor.. 20 20 20 30 30 40 1 


Max. length . 30 40 50 30 50 50 2 

Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. 

Foundation . 8 8 3 12 12 12 16 

First story . 8 8 3 12 12 12 12 

Second story. 8 8 8 3 8 8 3 12 

Third story. 8 8 3 8 3 

Fourth story. 8 3 


x 40 ft. is the maximum height above first floor for all 
walls. 

2 Greater lengths must have intersecting walls at points 
not more than 50 ft. apart and otherwise be in accordance 
with this table. 

3 With pilasters not over 15 ft. on centers. 

For story heights which exceed 10 ft. the tabular 
thickness of walls given above must be increased ac¬ 
cordingly. 

Pilasters required above are to project from wall not 
less than 4 ft. by 2 ft. 8 ins. long or wide. 

Thickness of Walls for Warehouse Class of Buildings. 
Maximum height in feet above first floor... .40 ft. 0 ins. 


Maximum length in feet.50 ft. 0 ins. 

Foundation .16 ins. 

First story .16 ins. 

Second story .12 ins. 

Third story.12 ins. 

Fourth story . 12 ins. 


Basement foundation walls deeper than 4 ft. and 
6 ins. from the finished grade line to the top of the foot¬ 
ing shall have a minimum thickness of 12 ins. Base¬ 
ment foundation walls 4 ft. 6 ins. or less in depth from 
the finished grade to the top of the footing shall have 
a minimum thickness of 12 ins. if the surface of the 
ground slopes upward away from the wall at an angle 
of more than 20 deg. with the horizontal, unless the 
ground is leveled off a distance of at least 5 ft. from the 
wall. 

Interior non-bearing partitions not over 9 ft. high and 
20 ft. long of concrete block may have a minimum thick¬ 
ness of 4 ins. 

Concrete block foundation walls supporting solid brick 
masonry shall be 8 ins., 12 ins., and 16 ins. in thickness 
for tabular, 9 ins., 13 ins. and 17 ins. brick walls, re¬ 
spectively. The top course of such foundation wall must 
be filled in solid or it shall consist of solid block. 














536 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


Sec. 433-9. Party Division and Curtain Walls. The 
minimum thickness of non-bearing p^rty, or division 
walls of hollow or solid concrete block shall be 8 ins. 
for lengths not exceeding 20 ft. and maximum height 
14 ft., and 12 ins. for lengths not exceeding 25 ft. and 
maximum height 14 ft. The minimum thickness of cur¬ 
tain or panel walls under windows in skeleton frame 
construction shall be 8 ins., provided said curtain wall 
is not over 4 ft. 6 ins. high and 20 ft. long. 

Where hollow concrete block in a party or division 
wall is broken into for the insertion of building members, 
such members must be staggered. 

Sec. 433-10. Construction. All concrete block shall 
be laid in portland cement mortar with vertical joints 
broken, and with all courses thoroughly bonded. 

Portland cement mortar shall consist of 1 part cement 
to not more than 3 parts of sand, in accordance with the 
requirements of Secs. 433 and 433-1. Hydrated lime not 
to exceed 10% of the volume of cement used may be 
added to the mixture. 

All masonry facing of concrete block or concrete block 
facing of other masonry units shall be bonded to the 
backing as required for the kind of facing used. 

Whenever concrete block is to be covered with stucco 
or plaster the mortar joints shall be struck off roughly 
and not pointed. 

All bearings on hollow or solid concrete block con¬ 
struction shall be not less than 4 ins. Where vertical 
cell construction is used the load shall be distributed by 
means of metal or masonry bearing plates of sufficient 
thickness to distribute the imposed load, or the support¬ 
ing course shall be filled with concrete. Other equivalent 
methods of construction may be used if approved by the 
commissioner of buildings. 

Wherever a change occurs in the thickness of walls 
or piers of hollow concrete block laid with the cells 
vertical, unless the webs and shells are properly super¬ 
imposed, the bearing loads shall be distributed upon the 
wall below by means of metal or masonry bearing plates, 
or the supporting course shall be made of solid block. 
Other equivalent methods of construction may be used 
if approved by the commissioner of buildings. 

No concrete block shall be broken into in order to 
form a slot or recess. All slots must be built in, and no 
slot shall have less.than 8 ins. thickness toward the out¬ 
side face of the wall. 

Sec. 433-11. Approval and Fee. (a) All concrete block 
used in the city of Cincinnati shall be approved in writ¬ 
ing by the commissioner of buildings. Such written ap- 


BUILDING CODES 


537 


proval may be obtained upon application for the same 
and submitting the certificate of tests in accordance with 
the provisions of Secs. 433-3, 433-4 and 433-5. When 
the block are found to comply with all the requirements 
of said sections the written approval shall be issued 
upon payment of $25 to the city treasurer, which amount 
is to be credited to the public safety fund. Each ap¬ 
proval shall expire on the last day of January of each 
year. The name of the person, firm or corporation and 
its officers who manufacture the block must be placed 
on file with the commissioner of buildings as a record. 
All changes of ownership or management of any plant 
whose block is approved under this section must be re¬ 
ported in writing to the commissioner of buildings. 

(b) If at any time after the approval of the concrete 
blocks the commissioner of buildings finds it necessary 
to require subsequent tests in accordance with Sec. 433-4 
and such tests disclose that said block do not meet the 
requirements of said section, then the commissioner of 
buildings may forthwith revoke the approval of such 
block theretofore given. 

Sec. 433-12. In the event that any section or part of a 
section of this ordinance shall be held by any court to be 
invalid or unconstitutional, such decision shall not be 
held to invalidate or impair the validity, force or effect 
of any other section or part of a section of this ordinance 
except the section or part of a section so held invalid 
or unconstitutional by such court. 

Sec. 3. That original Sec. 433 of the Code of Or¬ 
dinances of the City of Cincinnati be and the same is 
hereby repealed. 

Sec. 4. This ordinance shall take effect and be in force 
from and after the earliest period allowed by law. 

An Ordinance Regulating the Manufacture and 
Sale of Concrete Block and Concrete Struc¬ 
tural Tile for Bearing Walls and 
Piers in Camden, N. J. 

(Adopted Sept. 28, 1922.) 

Sec. 1.—Be it ordained by the City Council of the 
City of Camden, N. J., that "building units, such as con¬ 
crete block and structural tile which shall be sold for 
use in bearing walls and piers erected in the City of 
Camden, N. J., shall be made from portland cement and 
suitable aggregate and shall be classed as concrete block 
and shall comply with the requirements of this ordi¬ 
nance, hereafter stated. 


538 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 
Materials. 

Sec. 2.— (a) Portland cement shall conform to the 
standard specifications of the American Society for 
Testing Materials, 1 1315 Spruce street, Philadelphia. 

(b) All fine and coarse aggregate shall be clean and 
free from deleterious substances. 

(c) Fine aggregate must 'consist of sand, gravel, 
crushed stone, crushed blast furnace, slag, steam boiler 
cinders or 'other equivalent material suitably graded from 
fine to coarse and which will pass, when dry, through a 
screen having openings 54 in. in diameter. 

(d) Coarse aggregate must consist of gravel, crushed 
stone, crushed blast furnace slag, steam boiler cinders 
or other equivalent material which, when dry, is re¬ 
tained on a screen having openings 54 in. in diameter and 
which will pass through a screen having openings Y\ in. 
in diameter. 

Proportions. 

Sec. 3.— (a) Materials for concrete black shall be so 
proportioned that the block shall meet the requirements 
of the compression and absorption tests hereinafter 
specified. 

(b) Hydrated lime may be added to the mixture not 
to exceed 10% of the volume of the cement used. 

Tests Required. 

Sec. 4.—(a) Concrete block shall be subjected to the 
following tests before their use is approved by the 
building department. 

(b) Compression .—All concrete block intended for 
use in bearing walls and piers shall be subjected to a 
compression test. 

(c) Absorption .—Concrete block shall be subjected 
to an absorption test. 

Methods for Making Tests. 

Sec. 5.— (a) For these tests at least three samples 
shall be selected at random from manufacturer’s stock 
or from block delivered to job by a representative of 
the building department. The samples shall be of the 
regular size as used in construction and must be marked 
for identification. In case of failure of first three 
specimens to meet requirements, three more specimens 
shall be taken and the test repeated. The second test 
shall be final. 

(b) These tests shall be made in a testing laboratory 

’Standard Specifications and Tests for Portland Cement, 
adopted Jan. 1, 1917, with amendments effective Jan. 1, 

J £ 1. 



BUILDING CODES 


539 


of recognized standing, in accordance with standard 
methods prescribed by American Concrete Institute. 2 All 
tests shall be made at the expense of the manufacturer, 
dealer or selling agency. 

(c) The building inspector shall require at last every 
4 months a certificate of test of product made by every 
manufacturer and selected by a representative of the 
building department. The building inspector may re¬ 
quire additional tests to be made on samples selected by 
him whenever, in his opinion, there is doubt as to 
whether the product meets the standards prescribed by 
these regulations. 

Standards of Quality. 

Sec. 6.— (a) The ultimate compressive strength of 
hollow and two-piece block at 28 days or when delivered 
to site, as determined by three test specimens, must 
average 750 lbs. per sq. in. on the gross cross-sectional 
area of the block as designed to be used in wall and 
must not fall below 650 lbs. per sq. in. in any test. 

(b) The ultimate compressive strength of three test 
samples of solid concrete block shall be not less than 
1200 lbs. per sq. in. of gross cross-sectional area. 

(c) The absorption test will be made upon the speci¬ 
mens before they are used for the compression test. 

(d) The absorption of three test samples when dried 
to a constant weight at a temperature between 225 and 
250 degs. F. and placed in clean water with the top sur¬ 
face exposed to the air for a period of 48 hours, shall 
not exceed 1214 lbs. per cu. ft. of concrete (actual 
volume) contained in any block. 

Use. 

Sec. 7.—Concrete building block which have the ap¬ 
proval of the building department may be used for 
buildings wherever solid masonry is permitted by this 
code, subject to all the limitations required for solid 
masonry and subject to the allowable working stresses 
and provisions of this code. 

Working Stresses. 

Sec. 8.— (a) The maximum allowable working stress 
for masonry walls, piers and pilasters of hollow con¬ 
crete block or tile shall not exceed one-tenth of the 
average crushing strength of the block when laid in 
lime-cement mortar and shall not exceed one-eighth of 
the average crushing strength of the block when laid in 
Portland cement mortar. 

Standard Specifications for Concrete Building Block 
and Concrete Building Tile, American Concrete Institute, 
1807 East Grand boulevard. Detroit, Mich. 



540 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


(b) The maximum allowable working stress for solid 
walls, piers and pilasters of solid concrete block shall 
not exceed one-sixth of the average crushing strength 
of the block when laid in Portland cement mortar. 

(c) Where the height of piers between lateral sup¬ 
ports exceeds five times the least lateral dimension, the 
maximum allowable working stress shall be the reduced 
unit stress obtained by the use of this formula. The 
quotient obtained by dividing the height of the pier in 
feet by 20, times at least horizontal dimension in feet, 
shall be subtracted from 1.25 and the remainder multi¬ 
plied by the maximum allowable working stress per 
square inch as given in par. (a) of this section. 


Thickness and Height of Walls. 


Sec. 9.— (a) For residence or dwelling house, the fol¬ 
lowing table shall determine the minimum thickness of 
superstructure of concrete hollow block or tile: 


No. of 
stories. 
1 
2 
3 


Basement. 

inches. 

12 

12 

16 


1st story, 
inches. 

8 

8 

12 


2nd story. 3rd story, 
inches. inches. 

8 

8 8 


(b) In no case, however, shall the total height of any 
bearing wall of hollow concrete blo-ck or tile in any 
building exceed 40 ft. 

Party Walls. 

Sec. 10.— (a) The minimum thickness of party or 
division walls of hollow building tile or hollow concrete 
block or of hollow wall construction shall be 8 ins. for 
spans not exceeding 18 ft. and 12 ins. for spans not 
exceeding 24 ft. 

(b) Hollow building tile or hollow concrete block in 
a party or division wall may be broken into for the inser¬ 
tion of building members; such members, however, must 
not butt, but must be staggered. 

Construction. 

Sec. 11.— (a) All concrete block shall be laid in port- 
land cement mortar as defined in this ordinance with 
vertical joints broken, and with all courses thoroughly 
bonded. All masonry facing of concrete block shall be 
bonded to the backing as required for the kind of facing- 
used. 

(b) All masonry backing of hollow or solid concrete 
block shall be bonded to the facing as required for the 
kind of facing used. 

(c) Whenever concrete block is to be covered with 
stucco or plaster, the surfaces to receive same shall be 
roughened, or joints struck off roughly and not pointed. 


BUILDING CODES 


541 


(d) All bearings on hollow or solid concrete block 
construction shall be not less than 4 ins. Where vertical 
cell construction is used the load shall be distributed by 
means of metal or masonry bearing plates of sufficient 
thickness to distribute the imposed load or the support¬ 
ing course filled with concrete; or other equivalent 
method of construction may be used. 

(e) Wherever a change occurs in the thickness of 
walls or piers of hollow concrete block laid with the 
cells vertical, unless the webs and shells are properly 
superimposed, the bearing loads shall be distributed upon 
the wall below by means of metal or masonry bearing 
plates or the supporting course be made of solid block, 
or other equivalent method of construction may be used. 

Licensing. 

Sec. 12.—Every manufacturer of such tile or concrete 
block, selling agency or dealer therein must secure 
license for the manufacture or sale for use for building 
purposes for such block or tile in the City of Camden, 
N. J., for which license there shall be paid to the build¬ 
ing inspector for the use of the city, a licensee fee at the 
rate of $50 per annum or for any part of any calendar 
year. All such licenses shall expire on Dec. 31 of each 
year. Said license shall be granted as soon as certificate 
of test has been obtained and approved by the building 
inspector showing that the concrete block proposed to be 
sold have met the requirements of this ordinance. The 
name of the firm or corporation and its responsible 
officers making application for such license must be 
placed on file with the building inspector before any 
such license shall be issued. All changes in ownership 
or management of any license must be reported in 
writing within 5 days thereafter to the building in¬ 
spector. In case of such change any such license may 
be transferred by the inspector on the payment of a 
transfer fee of $3. 

Identification. 

Sec: 13.—A mark of identification shall be impressed 
on every block to be manufactured, sold or used in the 
City of Camden by the maker or dealer thereof, before 
said block leaves the ward or salesroom of the maker 
or dealer. A copy of the mark shall be filed with and 
approved by the building inspector prior to the issue of 
any license hereinunder. 

Penalty. 

Sec. 14.— (a) Any person, firm or corporation vio¬ 
lating the terms of this ordinance by manufacturing or 
selling or using concrete block which do not carry an 


542 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


identification mark or which have not been licensed shall 
pay a fine of $25 and the costs of prosecution for each 
offense. In case such person, firm or corporation shall 
violate the terms of this section of this ordinance, the 
building inspector shall forthwith give notice to such 
offender to remove such block and each day and any 
part of every day such block remain, after the service 
of any such notice, shall be taken and considered and 
construed to be a separate and distinct violation of this 
ordinance for which such offender violating same shall 
pay a fine of $25 and the costs of prosecution. 

(b) Manufacturer will be held responsible for seeing 
that block are not delivered to the job until they are 
28 days old and have attained the strength specified 
herein above. 

(c) If samples of block taken after license has been 
granted fail to meet the compression and absorption tests 
as hereinbefore set forth, the penalty for failure to meet 
the requirements of this code shall be, for the first fail¬ 
ure, a fine of $100; for the second failure, a fine of 
$200; and for the third failure, suspension of license to 
manufacture or sell in the City of Camden for a period 
of one calendar year from the date of such failure. 

(d) In addition to the penalties above provided, in 
case any licensee hereunder shall violate any of the terms 
of this ordinance, any such violation shall be good cause 
for the revocation of such license. Any such license 
may be revoked for any such violation after notice and 
on hearing before the building commission. 

The building inspector, in any such case, shall prefer 
and sign the charges and give the necessary notice when¬ 
ever in his judgment any such license should be revoked 
for the violation of any of the terms of this ordinance. 
It shall be the duty of the building inspector and his 
assistants, from time to time, to inspect all concrete 
block manufactured or used in the City of Camden, and 
to report monthly to the building 'commission any viola¬ 
tion of this ordinance. 

Note on Camden block and tile ordinance. —Par. (a) 
in Sec. 11 of the above ordinance states that all block 
must be laid in portland cement mortar. Par. (a) of 
Sec. 8, however, specifies a working stress for block laid 
in lime-cement mortar. Where it is desired to permit 
the use of portland cement mortar only, Sec. 8 should be 
changed accordingly. If lime-'cement mortar is to be 
permitted, Sec. 11 should be changed, and lime-cement 
mortar should be defined as mortar containing 1 part of 
Portland cement and 1 part of lime to not more than 6 
parts of fine aggregate, all proportions to be by volume. 


CHAPTER LXVI. 


TESTS ON CONCRETE PRODUCTS. 

No manufacturer of concrete products can 
be certain of the reliability of the products he is 
manufacturing unless representative specimens 
of such products are tested from time to time to 
determine efficiency. 

Tests are particularly necessary on such 
products as block, brick and all kinds of pipe. 
Nothing but a uniformly high-grade product 
should ever be marketed. Block, for example, 
should be examined before offered for sale. A 
crack of any size or broken or crumbly edges 
indicate a deficient product that at least should 
not be used for important work. Various speci¬ 
fications, some of which have been presented 
elsewhere, suggest appropriate tests for the prod¬ 
ucts in question and the standard that must be 
attained as a result of such tests indicating the 
product to be of recognized quality. 

Products made in machines or molds, using 
a very wet mix, are occasionally warped and dis¬ 
torted due usually to slump of the product be¬ 
cause removed from the mold too soon. Such 
products may be strong and dense but lack uni¬ 
formity, which would prevent them from use 
where good appearance was a desired quality. 

Slight variations in proportion of a mixture, 
water content of the mixture or differences in 
curing will cause variations in color of product. 
Every care should be taken to prevent variation 
in color. 

An indication of the strength of any product 
is the fracture of aggregate when the product is 
broken. This indicates that the cement has per¬ 
formed its full binding function and the product 



544 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

is as strong as can be made with the aggregates 
used. 

Poor quality in most products is commonly 
due to some one or more of several causes 
Typical among these are too lean a mix; that is 
one lacking in cement; the use of too much fine 
sand or poorly graded aggregates; too much or 
too little water used in the mixture (in the case 
of most products manufacture, too little) ; in¬ 
sufficient mixing of the concrete; neglect to cure 
it properly. If plenty of cement is used in the 
mixture, and also good, clean aggregate with as 
much water as can be used in the particular ma¬ 
chine or process of manufacture being employed, 
there should be no trouble in producing good 
concrete products of whatever kind, providing 
other essentials of concrete manufacture are ob¬ 
served. 


Testing Laboratory, Case School of Applied 
Science, Cleveland, O. 









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All blocks 

marked as 

manufactured 

8/6/19. 



All blocks tested 8/13/19. 

All blocks age 7 days. 

Structural Materials Research Laboratory, 
Lewis Institute, Chicago. 

Tests of Concrete Bricks. 

Compression and absorption tests of bricks ap¬ 
proximately 3% by 814 by 2% ins. 

Brick were broken in halves; one-half for ab¬ 
sorption test, the other half for compression test. 







TESTS ON BRICK 545 

The half brick were tested flatwise in a 200,000-lb. 
Olsen universal testing machine. A smooth bearing 
surface was formed with plaster. The caps were allowed 
to cure for 24 hours before test. The load was applied 
through a spherical bearing block to insure an even 
distribution of stress. 

The half-brick used for absorption specimens were 
dried to constant weight. They were immersed in water 
which was raised to the boiling point within 30 minutes. 



Machine Designed for Testing Concrete Roofing Tile to 
* Ascertain the Breaking Strength. 

The water was allowed to boil for 5 hours, after which 
it was cooled to room temperature within 30 minutes. 
The specimens were removed and surface-dried with a 
towel. The gain in weight was calculated as the 
per cent absorption after 5-hour immersion in boiling 
water. The specimens were again dried to constant 
weight and immersed in water at room temperature for 
48 hours. The gain in weight was calculated as per cent 
absorption after 48 hours in water at room temperature. 




















































Tests of Concrete Brick. 


546 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


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548 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


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CHAPTER LXVII. 


ASSOCIATION CO-OPERATION. 

In America it has been demonstrated that mem¬ 
bers of an industry can co-operate through the 
medium of their particular trade association. This 
co-operation benefits not only the members but 
also the public. During the Great War the U. S. 
Government desired to deal with various indus¬ 
tries through an individual representing the in¬ 
dustry. This can only be done by and through 
an association. Associations having interests in 
common can co-operate, as has been evidenced in 
the business history of America. 

A case in point is the making of official fire 
tests on concrete building block and tile at the 
Underwriters’ Laboratories, Chicago, to ascertain 
the fire resistance of concrete building units. The 
first definite action toward raising funds for this 
purpose was launched at the 1921 convention of 
the Concrete Products Association in Chicago. 
The American Concrete Institute at its 1922 con¬ 
vention in Cincinnati started a fund for the same 
purpose and formed a committee to supervise the 
tests. The Portland Cement Association promptly 
ofifered to appropriate $2500 for fire tests pro¬ 
vided the Concrete Products Association would 
raise an additional $2500. The Concrete Prod¬ 
ucts Association volunteered to set the quota from 
the industry at $3000. More than $6000 was 
raised from all sources for the fire tests which 
have been made. At this writing the report on the 
tests has been drafted but is not yet available for 
publication. It may be safely assumed that the 
industry will be benefited by the tests. 

Honor Roll of Concrete Products Industry. 

It is proper that this volume dedicated to 



554 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


“Those whose vision, labor and perseverance have 
made possible die development of the concrete 
products industry,” should contain a list of those 
who so generously donated to the fire test fund. 
The total amount donated through the medium of 
the Concrete Products Association was $3048 and 
those who donated the amounts making this total 
are listed in order of precedence as follows: 

Donors to C. P. A. Fire Test Fund. 

Prairie Concrete Products Co., Prairie Du Chien, Wis. 
G. E. Krause, Juneau, Alaska. 

Helm Brick Machine Co., Cadillac, Mich. 

Omaha Concrete Stone Co., Omaha, Neb. 

Blystone Mfg. Co., Cambridge Springs, Pa. 

Plano Cement Products Co., Plano, Ill. 

F. J. Straub, New Kensington, Pa. % 

Miller Nelson, Inc., Raspeburg, Mcl. 

Drake Realty Construction Co., Omaha, Neb. 

Lange Bros., Champaign, Ill. 

Multiplex Concrete Machinery Co., Elmore, O. 

Concrete Products Co., Milwaukee, Wis. 

Cement Products Co., Davenport, la. 

Geo. C. Kindle, Pitman, N. J. 

Anchor Building Co., Elizabeth, N. J. 

Bennett Artificial Stone Co., Cleveland, O. 

Robert Spencer, Cornelia, Ga. 

Alfred H. Howard, Boston, Mass. 

Schaeffer Bros. Cement Block Co., Rochester, N. Y. 
Concrete Building Block Manufacturers’ Association, 
Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Hydraulic Stone & Building Co., Trinidad, Colo. 

Ideal Concrete Machinery Co., Cincinnati, O. 

Universal Roofing Tile Co., Chicago, Ill. 

Watson Cement & Coal Co., Lima, O. 

Anchor Concrete Machinery Co., Rock Rapids, la. 

West Toledo Concrete Co., West Toledo, O. 

Shope Brick Co. of Wisconsin, Alois, Wis. 

E. H. Ehlert, Cleveland. 

T. A. Smith, Paw Paw, Mich. 

Spurgeon Bros., Sabina, O. 

J. S. Norris, Hartford, Ark. 

W. H. Graham & Co., Lodi, Calif. 

Cement Tile & Block Mfg. Co., Osgood, O. 

Jacksonville Concrete Products Co., Jacksonville, Fla. 
Besser Sales Co., Chicago. 

Carey Concrete Co., Wisconsin Rapids, Wis. 


CO-OPERATION 


555 


Shope Brick Co., Portland, Ore. 

Rhode Island Concrete Products Association. 

Cement Products Association of Buffalo, Buffalo, N. Y. 
Brayton Cement Works, Brayton, la. 

Bertsch Bros., Richmond, Ind. 

W. E. Morris, Dayton, O. 

The Wveth-Scott Co., Newark, O. 

C. E. Lindsley Co., Irvington, N. J. 

C. Oscar Myers, Raspeburg, Md. 

Peyton’s Concrete Works, Benton, Ill. 

Steward & Silver, Columbus, O. 

Erank Whipperman, Omaha, Neb. 

Ideal Cement Stone Co., Omaha. 

Ideal Concrete Construction Co., Joliet, Ill. 

Pickard Anchor Concrete Co., Omaha, Neb. 

Nebraska Artificial Stone Co., Omaha, Neb. 

W. H. Daugherty, David City, Neb. 

J. B. Truesdell, Glidden, la. 

Carl Glur, Columbus, Neb. 

Peter Palmer, Oakland, Neb. 

Council Bluffs Concrete Co., Council Bluffs, la. 

E. L. Bateman, Bethany, Neb. 

J. H. Keim, Tecumseh, Neb. 

Artificial Stone Co., Bruning, Neb. 

Henry Luers, Omaha, Neb. 

Toledo Concrete Block Manufacturers’ Association. 
Massachusetts Cement Block Co., Boston, Mass. 

Osborn Palmer, Peabody, Mass. 

J. M. Simpson, Boston, Mass. 

S. Belanger & Son, Nashua, N. H. 

Dri Wall Co., 'West Bridgewater, Mass. 

Geo. W. Forsberg, Worcester, Mass. 

Oakley Concrete Block Co., Oakley, O. 

A. J. Bowen, Moravia, N. Y. 

Colonial Concrete Products Co., Glenshaw, Pa. 

Home Builders’ Conference, Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Thomas F. Berry, Bucyrus, O. 

Cunard-Lang Concrete Co., Columbus, O. 

Erie Cement Products & Supply Co., Toledo, O. 

Fred M. Leach, Detroit, Mich. 

Silverton Concrete Block Co., Silverton, O. 

E. B. Stevens, Bellefontaine, O. 

Wayne Concrete Products Co., Greenville, O. 

H. L. Tillson, Des Moines, la. 

W. R. Harris, Chicago, Ill. 

H. E. Meier, Davenport, la. 

O. B. Lofstedt, Grand Junction, la. 

Austin Crabbs, Davenport, la. 

W. J. Black, Sac City, la. 


556 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


M. L. Patzig, Des Moines, la. 

A. T. Rasmussen, Brayton, la. 

E. L. Arthur, Des Moines, la. 

Paullina Cement Tile Factor}', Paullina, la. 
Cement Products Co., Estherville, la. 

Boyd Cement Works, Boyd, Minn. 

Swansea Stone Works, Belleville, Ill. 

Lawrence A. Borgert, Browerville, Minn. 

Martin Dippold, Edwardsville. Ill. 

Lewis R. Knipple, Stoddard, Wis. 

Schweinshaupt Bros.,,Saginaw, Mich. 

T. Kempf & Sons, Niverville. N. Y. 

Conley Concrete Block Co., Wyoming, Pa. 

Waller Construction & Supply Co., Miami, Fla. 
Clement Co., Medina, O. 

Jens Larsen, Walnut, la. 

Peerless Builders Supply Co., Charleston, W. Va. 
Concrete Builders, Ltd., Fredericton, N. B. 
Middleton Cement Products Co., Middleton, N. S. 
American Concrete Works, Bellingham, Wash. 
Ideal Cement Works, Grand Island, Neb. 

Burke Concrete Stone Products Co., Burke, S. D. 
Beloit Concrete Stone Co., Beloit, Wis. 

A. E. Anderson, Sebeka, Minn. 

George Luety, Beloit, Wis. 

Minneapolis Concrete Products Association. 
Howard G. Lindsay, Orlando, Fla. 

W. E. Dunn Mfg. Co., Holland, Mich. 

Zanesville Cement Products Co., Zanesville, O. 
George D. Barriball, Cleveland, O. 

M. Kammerer & Sons, El Paso, Ill. 

A. Coderre, St. Cesaire, P. Q., Canada. 

F. J. Kinzinger, Windsor, Ont., Canada. 

Rome Cast Stone Products Co., Rome, N. Y. 
Ohio Concrete Products Association. 

Valley Concrete Pipe Co., Van Nuys, Calif. 

Fall River Cast Stone Co., Fall River, Mass. 

Mims Material Co., Luray, Va. 

Memphis Granolith Co., Memphis, Tenn. 

Dethloff Cement Products Co., Akron, O. 

A. M. Fuller, Cleveland, O. 

IT. R. Post, Kent, O. 

A. L. Post, Kent, O. 

W. F. Walker, Columbus, O. 

F. A. Owens, Akron, O. 

Robert Scholl, Cleveland, O. 

Willsea Works, Rochester, N. Y. 

Bangor Cast Stone Products Co., Bangor, Me. 
Kent Machine Co., Kent, O. 


CO-OPERATION 


557 


Pacific Coast Concrete Co., Los Angeles, Cal. 

Santa Barbara Unit Brick & Tile Co., Santa Barbara, 
Cal. 

W. W. Wilt, Kent, O. 

National Slag Association, Cleveland, O. 

Borst Cement Block Co.. Akron, O. 

Lakeview Concrete Tile Co., Lakeview, la. 

Saffert Cement Construction Co., New Ulm, Minn. 
Brighton Concrete Block Co., Pittsburgh. 

St. Paul Cement Works, St. Paul, Minn. 

Griffin Lumber Co., Hudson Falls, N. Y. 

F. A. Longnecker, Kinderhook, Ill. 

Artificial Stone Corp., Paterson, N. J. 

Charles McDonald, Kentville, N. S. 

W. A. Morse, Pocomoke City, Md. 

Concrete Machinery & Supply Co., Los Angeles, Cal. 
Raymond P. Bigelow, Chicago, Ill. 

Fred Spatz, Jr., Nutley, N. J. 

A. L. Schumaker, Detroit, Mich. 

Hamtramck Concrete Block Co., Hamtramck, Mich. 

W. F. Raese, Jr., Saginaw, Mich. 

Zellar Coal Co., Swanton, O. 

Miller-Nelson, Inc., Raspeburg. Baltimore, Md. 

B. J. Concrete Products Co., Inc., Red Oak, la. 

R. E. Hamilton’s Sons, Detroit, Mich. 

Wm. Malm & Son Mfg. & Const. Co., Buffalo, Minn. 
Peter Osterhaut, Windsor, Ont. 

Calumet Concrete Construction Co., Chicago, Ill. 

Howes & McGinty, Inc., New Bedford, Mass. 

Houghton Cement Products Co., Detroit. 

Zagelmever Cast Stone Co., Highland Park, Mich. 

C. A. Wilcox, Royal Oak, Mich. 

Barriball Bros., Cleveland, O. 

Wm. E. Devos & Co., Milwaukee, Wis. 

Best Construction Co., Rochester, Minn. 

Baumgardner Products Co., Tiffin, O. 

Oscar Schlichting, Waterville, O. 

Benjamin Ziegler, East Liverpool. O. 

Capitol Avenue Cement Works, St. Paul, Minn. 

George Burris, Kenton. O. 

Valley Cement Block Co., Providence, R. I. 

Bowen Construction Co., Providence, R. I. 

Builders Concrete Stone Co., Pawtucket, R. I. 

Antonia Corrado, Providence, R. I. 

D. Laurenzio, Providen-ce, R. I. 

Ciconne Concrete Block Co.. Providence, R. I. 

Ralph Idugbo, Providence, R. I. 

Moody Bros., Dresden, O. 

H. F. Gaston, Chicago, Ill. 


558 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


Geist Building Materials Co., Cleveland, O. 

Wm. F. Stray, Chicago, Ill. 

N. W. Davenport Cement Block Co., Davenport, la. 
Winkworth Fuel & Supply Co., Detroit, Mich. 

Concrete Products Association of Calumet District. 
Arundel-Shope Brick Co., Baltimore, Md. 

Scheel & Orlikowski, Detroit. Mich. 

James Whitesell, Columbus, O. 

Lewis Gram, Maryville, Mo. 

Elmwood Lumber & Grain Co. 

J. C. Vreeland, Pawling, N. Y. 

Hilker Supply Co., Granite City, Ill. 

Stainfield & Nichols, Joliet, Ill. 

Prairie Concrete Products Co., Prairie Du Chien, Wis. 
Big 4 Cement Works, Adair, la. 

Mid-West Concrete Products Association. 

Globe Concrete Co., Catlettsburg, Ky. 

Artificial Stone Co., Wilmington, Del. 

Iowa Concrete Products Association. 

Norwood Concrete Block & Construction Co., Nor¬ 
wood, O. 

Anchor Concrete Machinery Co., Columbus, O. 
Crawfordsville Foundry, Crawfordsville, Ind. 

Springfield Cement Products Co., Springfield, O. 
Cleveland Cement Users’ Association. 

Schmitter Bros., Columbus, O. 

John S. Lane & Son, Inc., Meriden, Conn. 

Joplin Cement Co., Joplin, Mo. 

Gonzales Cement Works, Gonzales, Tex. 

Virden Builders Supply Co., Virden, Ill. 

Toledo Concrete Block Mfrs. Association, Toledo, O. 
Akron Concrete Products Association. 

W. A. Reed, Block-O-Brick Co., Chicago. 

Thomas W. Noble & Co., Chicago. 

The total amounts obtained from various 
sources as recorded are as follows : 

Total of Concrete Products Association funds.. .$3048.00 
Total of American Concrete Institute funds.... 715.00 
Total Portland Cement Association appropriation 2500.00 


Grand total of all funds.$6263.00 

C. P. A. Donations Listed by States. 


Ohio .$1184.50 

Iowa . 242.50 

Illinois . 255.00 

Michigan . 185.00 


Missouri .$ 15.00 

Colorado . 10.00 

Maine . 10.00 

New Bruns., Can. 10.00 











CO-OPERATION 559 


Pennsylvania . 

155.50 

Ontario, Can. 

10.00 

Minnesota . 

144.00 

South Dakota .... 

10.00 

Nebraska . 

165.00 

Tennessee . 

10.00 

New York. 

89.50 

Texas . 

10.00 

Wisconsin . 

80.00 

Alaska . 

10.00 

New Jersey. 

65.00 

Arkansas . 

5.00 

Rhode Island .... 

60.00 

Kentuckv . 

5.00 

Massachusetts .... 

52.00 

New Hampshire. . 

5.00 

Oregon . 

50.00 

Virginia . 

5.00 

Indiana. 

45.00 

Washington. 

5.00 

California . 

40.00 

West Virginia.... 

5.00 

Maryland . 

40.00 

Delaware . 

3.00 

Connecticut . 

25.00 

Quebec, Can. 

2.00 

Nova Scotia, Can.. 

20.00 

Georgia . 

1.00 

Florida . 

18.00 



Total from states and provinces.$3048.00 


It will be seen by the summary that the Port¬ 
land Cement xAssociation agreed to expend $2500, 
but as a matter of fact the Portland Cement Asso¬ 
ciation expended more than this amount in that 
members of its staff supervised the manufacture 
of concrete products for testing and supervised 
the tests. At the date of going to press with this 
edition the formal report from the Underwriters’ 
Laboratory is not available, but it may be safely 
stated that the tests made will have a beneficial 
effect upon the concrete block, brick and hollow 
tile industry. 



























CHAPTER LXVIII. 


PORTLAND CEMENT ASSOCIATION. 


What It Is and How It Operates. 

In the introduction to a book on “Trade Asso¬ 
ciation Activities,” recently published by the 
United States Department of Commerce, Secre¬ 
tary Herbert Hoover uses the following general 
definition of a trade association: 

A trade association is an organization of producers or 
distributors of a commodity or service upon a mutual 
basis for the purpose of promoting the business of its 
branch of industry or commerce and improving its serv¬ 



ice to the public. * * * The purpose and aim of a trade 
association then is to deal with all questions of general 
application in the branch of industry or commerce it 
serves, and so to develop its field that the enterprises in 
it may be conducted with the greatest efficiency and 
economy. 

The organization which is now known as the 
Portland Cement Association had its beginning in 
1902, when a small group of cement manufactur- 










PORTLAND CEMENT ASSOCIATION 561 

ers met in New York City to talk over problems 
of general interest. About a score of plants in 
the east were represented at the meeting. The 
result was the formation of a small trade asso¬ 
ciation and a secretary was employed to look 
after the general business. 

From that small beginning the organization has 
developed until at present it is made up of a gen¬ 
eral office in Chicago and district offices in 30 rep¬ 
resentative cities. About 200 of the 350 employes 
of the organization are trained engineers. The 
membership includes 85 cement companies oper¬ 
ating plants in the United States, Canada, Mexico, 
Cuba and South America. About 90% of the 
American mills are members. 

In co-operation with Lewis Institute, Chicago, 
the association maintains a research laboratory 
devoted exclusively to cement and concrete re¬ 
search. Thousands of tests are made here and 
some 35 employes are busily engaged unearthing 
information that will be of assistance in getting 
maximum results with concrete. 

In the general office there are a number of 
bureaus devoted to special phases of concrete 
work. Highways, cement products, agricultural 
uses, structural uses, railroad uses and housing are 
all covered by specialists. Latest developments 
are kept track of, and each bureau works in close 
co-operation with the district offices. These dis¬ 
trict offices have a trained engineer in charge with 
a number of fieldmen working throughout the 
territory. In this way individual contact is estab¬ 
lished with concrete users, and the information 
developed at the laboratory and in the general 
office bureaus is broadcast without charge to the 
people who use cement—whether it be a single 
sack or a million barrels. 

A number of committees among the member¬ 
ship have proved their value in bringing aboat 


562 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


economies in production. Meetings of the entire 
membership are held twice a year, when these 
various committees report on technical problems, 
conservation, plant operation and other common 











PORTLAND CEMENT ASSOCIATION 563 


matters. An accident prevention bureau has been 
of untold benefit in keeping down accidents and 
instilling the idea of safety into the minds of the 
workmen. At the membership meetings technical 
papers are read which bring out many valuable 
items of information. 

The advertising and publications bureau at the 
general office has charge of all advertising, book¬ 
let preparation and literature distribution. There 
is scarcely a form of concrete work that has not 
been covered in a booklet prepared for free dis¬ 
tribution. 

In 1921 the association, for the first time, ex¬ 
perimented with newspapers as advertising me¬ 
diums. The peculiar thing about association ad¬ 
vertising is that it is intended to sell an idea—not 
a product. No brand of portland cement is ever 
mentioned. The intention is merely to create a 
demand for cement—and it is then up to the 
member companies individually to get the busi¬ 
ness. The use of newspaper space for advertising 
proved so surprisingly valuable that the next year 
it was extended, and this year a larger number of 
papers have been added to the list. Obviously it is 
impossible to use all the papers in the country, 
but the association is firm in its belief in tbe value 
of newspaper advertising and devotes a consider¬ 
able appropriation for that purpose. 


CHAPTER LXIX. 


AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE. 

The American Concrete Institute is an out¬ 
growth of the National Association of Cement 
Users. The original organization movement be¬ 
gan in the summer of 1904 and the first conven¬ 
tion of users of cement interested in increasing 
their knowledge of its correct use was held in 
Indianapolis, Jan. 17-19, 1905. 

Annual conventions have been held each year 
since then, some early ones in conjunction with 
“Cement Shows,” and the authority of the or¬ 
ganization in all matters relating to concrete work 
has had increasing recognition. 

The constant purpose of its members has been 
to discover the best ways to do concrete work and 
to disseminate this developed knowledge. 

The Institute had July 1, 1924, approximately 
1300 members all over the civilized world, with 
30 technical committees studying special phases 
of its subject. 

Its annual convention and subsequently issued 
"Proceedings” become a review of progress in 
knowledge of concrete as brought out in commit¬ 
tee reports, standards of design, construction and 
manufacture, and in papers, addresses and dis¬ 
cussions by authorities on and specialists in the 
different fields of concrete’s use. 

The Institute issues occasional news letters (six 
to eight a year) about the organization’s work and 
the special activities of its committees. 

Admission to membership is by vote of the 
board of direction, after application for member¬ 
ship has been received. In general, eligibility is a 
matter of the expression of active interest in the 
objects and work of the organization. 



CHAPTER LXX. 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS ASSOCIATION. 

The first meeting called for the purpose of or¬ 
ganizing the manufacturers of concrete products 
into an association was held in the office of The 
International Trade Press, Inc., Chicago, Nov. 6, 
1918. To James E. Montgomery belongs the 
credit of calling the meeting. Mr. Montgomery 
had for many years been associated with the in¬ 
dustry and saw the need of co-operative effort, 



Concrete $rdbucts! gfaftoctattotr 

54j? Monadtjpck Block, .• 

xXy'MM/tff ( cttcufi Jicdmh tcXfiicaao'M, 

f a manufacturer of qua!if? concrete products is a member of theXfomrete 
m, and has agreed to continue to manufacture Concrete ^products of high 


3 n tfflttttf* tuhercof, the Concrete Products Association caused these presents to bedtuly 

executed hy its President and Secretary this jL&L~ day of - A. D,, 192Jfz~ 

Attest: r~> CONCRETE PRODUCES ASSOCIATION. 


Prc'stdmL 




EXPIRES 


JSSC£I> 


Facsimile of Certificate of Quality Issued by Concrete 

Products Association. 


first, to promote the manufacture of quality con¬ 
crete products; second, to promote the sale of 
such products. 

No membership or entrance fees were charged 
until the members of the association, at the 1921 
convention, decided that annual dues should be 
paid but no entrance fees should be charged. 

Since the 1921 convention no national meetings 
of members have been held due to the fact that 
the several state organizations are holding annual 





566 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


and special meetings. The business of the na¬ 
tional organization has been conducted by the 
officers and directors. 

Association Protects the Buyer. 


The issuance of Certificates of Quality has been 


SrauCTuaAi Matuiali »hu»c» 




TESTS OF CONCRETE BUILDING BLOCK 

From* Roseiand Concrete Produots Co-, Chicago. 

Conorote 3152 3182 3170 

Our Lot 7227 - Product* 3153 3183 3171 

Seal t. 0 - 3154 3188 3172 


Tests of three 8 by 8 by 16-ln- panelled face concrete building 
blocks containing three vertical air spaces. The blocks were first tested 
for absorption; after the absorption tost they were room-dried and tested for 
strength- The following Information was furnished oonoernlng the blocks: 



4 $ 


‘Hi 'ii 



4 


Aggregate: Limestone screenings. 

Mix: Backing 1-6^ jiving about 15 block to a saok of cement; 
Pacing 1-3* 

Consistency: Fairly wet. 

Type of Ulxer: Blystone Batch Hirer 

Type of Blook L'aohlne: Universal Junior Power tamper. 

Method of Curing: Inside and sprinkled for 3 days, then outdoors. 
Date Made: about December 20, 1923. 


absorption tests of the blocks were made In water at room 
temperature. They were dried to a constant weight at a temperature of about 
U0®c. and lrooersed in water for 24 hours* The gain In weight calculated as 
a percentage of the dry weight Is the aosorptlon. The blocks were allowed to 
room dry after the absorption test before breaking In compression. 


Compression tests of the blooka were made In a 200,000-lb. Clsen 
universal testing machine. The blocks were tested as laid In the wall. The 
bearing surfaces were oapped with a mixture of portland cement and gypsum to 
Insure an even distribution of the load. The load was applied throu^ a 
spherical bearing blook. 


Blocks were tested In compression on February 6, 1924. 


$ 

* 


Lot 

Dlwnslons of 

Block-ln. 

Gross 

ires 

Minimum 

Area 

Crushing Strength 

Dry 

Weitfjt 

lb. 

Absorption 
percent 
by wel Jit 

Loaded 

Surface 

Depth 

Total 

Load 

lb. per sq.In. 

Gross Minimum 
Area Area 

7227 

15.7 by 8.0 

7.7 

125.6 

82.9 

142,450 

1130 1720 

53.0 

6.2 






170,780 

1360 2060 

52.5 

5.4 






160.620 

1280 1940 

52.6 

6.1 




Average 

157,960 

1260 1910 

52.7 

6.9 


Correot 

U. 192 ,. ?rof.»or U of L.bor.«o»T 

Fac-simile of Report of Test Made to Obtain a Certificate 

of Quality. 

effective in promoting quality in manufacturing 
and in creating a demand for quality products. 

Herbert Hoover, Secretary of Commerce, re¬ 
cently said at a convention of the United States 
Chamber of Commerce: “Association ethics 

















CONCRETE PRODUCTS ASSOCIATION 567 

should provide for service to the public.” The 
Concrete Products Association was founded on 
this belief, as is evidenced by the certificates of 
quality which it issues to members whose prod¬ 
ucts meet the requirements of standard specifica¬ 
tions. Holders of certificates of quality have had 
their sales greatly increased. Prospective buyers 
have confidence in the integrity of the manufac¬ 
turer who holds a certificate of quality. 

The accompanying rules indicate how carefully 
the matter of selecting, marking and testing of 
specimen products is done: 

Rules Governing Issuance of Certificates of Quality. 

1. All specimens must be of the usual run of the 
products made by the member. 

2. All specimens must be selected by a duly author¬ 
ized representative of the Concrete Products Association. 

3. All specimens must be sealed by the authorized 
representative with seals provided for the purpose. 

4. All specimens must be crated or boxed, unless 
otherwise provided, and shipped by prepaid express or 
by freight, when so instructed, to the designated testing 
laboratory. 

5. The member requesting tests must make a state¬ 
ment of the nature of the aggregate, the concrete mix¬ 
ture used, of the age of the products, the methods and 
time of curing, and the machine or method used in 
making the products. 

6. To obtain a certificate of membership based on 
quality of product or products made, specimens submit¬ 
ted for test must meet the requirements of standard 
specifications, where such specifications have been adopted 
by recognized societies. 

7. All certificates issued will be dated to expire with 
the membership year. 

8. On concrete block, brick, tile or architectural 
trimstone American Concrete Institute Tentative Stand¬ 
ard will govern. 

9. On concrete roofing tile American Concrete Insti¬ 
tute Standard No. 22 will govern. 

10. On concrete drain tile and sewer pipe the speci¬ 
fications of the American Society for Testing Materials 
shall govern. 

11. In the case of products not covered by standard 
specifications, a certificate of quality will be issued if, 


568 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


in the opinion of the board of directors, the test results 
indicate that the products are of excellent quality. 

12. Where test results do not meet the requirements 
of standard specifi'cations or indicate that the products 
are of inferior quality, the members will be notified of 
apparent faults and will be advised how the faults can 
be eliminated and the products brought up to standard 
requirements. No publicity will be given in the official 
journal of such tests or the names of members divulged. 
Publicity will be given only to test results on which cer¬ 
tificates are issued. 

Based on the foregoing rules, instructions have 
been prepared for representatives appointed to 
select specimens of products. The instructions 
follow: 

Instructions for Selecting Specimens for Tests. 

1. Specimens shall be truly representative of the usual 
run of products. 

2. Plant operators shall be requested to give to the 
representative complete information as per list of ques¬ 
tions attached. 

3. Plant operator shall be instructed to ship speci¬ 
mens to a designated laboratory by prepaid express. 

4. All reports should be made to the district office of 
the Portland Cement Association which will transmit 
data to the Concrete Products Association. 

5. If the products to be tested meet the requirements 
of standard specifications adopted by the American Con¬ 
crete Institute, American Society for Testing Materials 
or other recognized authorities, a certificate of quality 
will be issued to members of the Concrete Products 
Association or members of affiliated state branches or 
local chapters. 

6. No certificates are issued to non-members. 

7. No charge for issuing certificate is made. 

8. Fee charged by testing laboratories must be paid 
bv plant operator. This payment should be made at the 
time specimens are submitted to testing. 

9. Either obtain check in amount of $6* payable to 
the Concrete Products Association or ask the manu¬ 
facturer of products to be sure to send check for $6 to 
the. national office of the Concrete Products Association. 
This fee is to cover cost of testing three blocks or tile 
as made by Lewis Institute, Physical Testing Labora¬ 
tories, Chicago. The fee for testing five brick is $77 

*Ttie prices quoted are for members of the Concrete 
Products Association. 



CONCRETE PRODUCTS ASSOCIATION 569 

10. Have the manufacturer supply the following data 
and report it: 

a. Nature of coarse and fine aggregate used. 

b. Proportion of cement, fine and coarse aggregate. 

c. Ask date products were made. 

d. Ask when products are to be shipped. 

e. If steam cured, how many hours were they in the 
steam curing chambers under the action of steam. 

f. Consistency of the concrete when used. 

g. Method of manufacture, whether hand tamped, 
power tamped, power pressed or poured. 

h. Name of machine or molds with which made. 

i. General appearance of the block. 

j. Name and post office address of manufacturer. 

k. Suggestions will be welcomed by the Concrete Prod¬ 
ucts Association from the representative selecting the 
specimens, especially those bearing upon any improve¬ 
ments which can be made in selecting and shipping 
specimens. 

11. Self-locking seals are provided. Three or four 
seals will be required to form a strip to be used in 
sealing each of the hollow specimens. Join 3 or 4 
seals by inserting the free end of one strip into the lock 
of another strip, bend the seal with the free lock back 
over the locked end. Repeat the operation until a strip 
of 3 or 4 seals is obtained. Pass the strip through one 
of the cores in a block, around the connecting web and 
back through the adjacent core and join the free ends. 
See that the telltale holes coincide. Do not bend seals 
backward and forward very often as this will likely 
cause a fracture. They will stand several bendings but 
not many. Seals are numbered. Numbers on seals used 
must be reported. 

It will be noted that specimens are not selected 
by the operator or owner of the plant, but by rep¬ 
resentatives of the Concrete Products Association 
or members of the staff of the Portland Cement 
Association on duty in the various district offices 
of the Portland Cement Association. These field 
engineers have an opportunity to promote the use 
of quality concrete products and their knowledge 
of where certificates of quality are held assist in 
the sale of certified products. 

The specifications appearing in this volume con¬ 
stitute the standards of the Concrete Products 
Association and it should be apparent that with 
such requirements as are specified and with rigid 


570 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


adherence to the rules regarding selecting speci¬ 
mens for test and for issuing certificates of quality 
that these certificates have proved to be of much 
greater value than would be indicated by the dues 
charged in the national, state and local associa¬ 
tions combined. 

A fac-simile of a certificate of quality is shown 
in this chapter. Certificates of quality have been 
issued to the members listed herein. No certifi¬ 
cate of quality is issued for a longer period than' 
12 months. 

In each issue of the official journal of the asso¬ 
ciation, Concrete Products, a map is published 
showing where certificates of quality are in effect, 
with a list of certificate holders in good standing. 

Holders of Certificates. 

1— Con’crete Products Department, Mooseheart, Ill. 

2— Shope Brick Co. of Wisconsin, Milwaukee. 

3— Plano Concrete Works, Plano, Ill. 

4— Roldan-Cammarata Cement Tile Co., St. Louis. 

5— C. E. Lindsley Co., Irvington, N. J. 

6— Ideal Concrete Construction Co., Joliet, Ill. 

7— Whitlock & Sons, Etlingville, L. I., N. Y. 

8— Plano Concrete Works, Plano, Ill. 

9— B. J. Concrete Products Co., Red Oak, la. 

10— Dakota Concrete Stone Co., Sioux Falls, S. D. 

11— Julius Sorenson, Racine, Wis. 

12— Hilker Supply Co., Granite City, Ill. 

13— Cement Products Co., Davenport, la. 

14— Shope Brick Co., Portland, Ore. 

15— Florida Nu-Tex Brick & Tile Co., Tampa, Fla. 

16— Cement Products Co., Davenport, la. 

17— Stainfield & Nichols Concrete Co., Joliet, Ill. 

18— Ideal Cement Stone Co., Omaha, Neb. 

19— Hydro-Stone Products Co., Sioux City, la. 

20— Modern Construction Co., Grand Junction, la. 

21— Peyton’s Concrete Works, Benton, Ill. 

22— Springfield Cement Products Co., Springfield, O. 

23— Carey Concrete Co., Wisconsin Rapids, Wis. 

24— Waukesha Cement Tile Co., Waukesha, Wis. 

25— Julius Sorenson, Racine, Wis. 

26— George O. Thomas, New London, Wis. 

27— Beloit Concrete Stone Co., Beloit, Wis. 

28— Arundel-Shope Brick Co., Baltimore, Md. 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS ASSOCIATION 571 

29— Economy Block Co., Wauwatosa, Wis. 

30— Cupery & Van der Molen, Friesland, Wis. 

31— Badger Concrete Co., Oshkosh, Wis. 

32— Ed Stelter, Randolph, Wis. 

33— Straub Fireproof Block Co., Forest Park, Ill. 

34— Mueller Block Co., Oshkosh, Wis. 

35— Cement Tile & Block Co., Elmira, O. 

36— Walter H. Franzen, Des Plaines, Ill. 

37— E. J. Pessefall, Defiance, O. 

38— N. W. Davenport Cement Block Co., Davenport, la. 

39— Erie Cement Products Co., Sandusky, O. 

40— Ideal Concrete Block Mfg. Co., Peoria, Ill. 

41— Kopf Konkrete Ko., Fond du Lac, Wis. 

42— Diamond Concrete Co., Omaha, Neb. 

43— Ideal Concrete Construction Co., Joliet, Ill. 

44— Gochnauer’s Concrete Block Co., Appleton, Wis. 

45— F. H. Johnson, Ellsworth, Wis. 

46— Ira Beyer, Mishicot, Wis. 

47— Cunard-Lang Concrete Co., Columbus, O. 

48— David City Concrete Co., David City, Neb. 

49— Artificial Stone Co., Bruning, Neb. 

51— Cast Stone Block Factory, Lanesboro, Minn. 

52— Calumet Concrete & Material Co., Chicago. 

53— John Nagy & Son, Toledo, O. 

54— Steward & Silver, Columbus, O. 

55— B. & T. Co., Columbus, O. 

56— Carey Concrete Co., Wisconsin Rapids, Wis. 

57— Economy Block Co., Wauwatosa, Wis. 

58— Armstrong & Kaiser, Springfield, O. 

59— H. E. Bester Ice Co., Hagerstown, Md. 

60— Modern Construction Co., Grand Junction, la. 

61— Schmitz Cement Block & Products Co., Fostoria, O. 

62— Springfield Cement Products Co., Springfield, O. 

63— Roseland Concrete Products Co., Chicago. 

64— Al. C. Dale, Columbus, O. 

65— Frank H. Johnson, Ellsworth, Wis. 

66— Peyton’s Concrete Works, Benton, Ill. 

67— Pessefall Concrete Products Co., Defiance, O. 

68— Johnstown Cement Products Co,, Johnstown, Pa. 

69— Ohio Cement Stave Silo Co., Wauseon, O. 

70— Orrville Cast Stone Co., Orrville, O. 

71— Cement Products Co., Davenport, la. 

72— N. W. Davenport Cement Block Co., Davenport, la. 

68— Johnstown Cement Products Co., Johnstown, Pa. 

69— Ohio Cement Stave Silo Co., Wauseon, O. 

70— Orrville Cast Stone Co., Orrville, O. 

71— Cement Products Co., Davenport, la. 

72— N. W. Davenport Cement Block Co., Davenport, la. 

73— Des Moines Cast Stone Products Co., Des Moines. 


572 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

74— Concrete Building Units, successors to Buchholz & 
Huxhold, Oak Park, Ill. 

75— Cunard-Lang Concrete Co., Columbus, O. 

76— H. A. Wellnitz, Columbus, O. 

77— B. & T. Block Co., Columbus, O. 

78— Schmitter Bros., Columbus, O. 

79— Cast Stone Co., Columbus, O. 

80— Al. C. Dale, Columbus, O. 

81— Steward & Silver, Columbus, O. 

82— J. W. Kinney & Son, Findlay, O. 

83— West Toledo Concrete Co., Toledo, O. 

84— Best Block Co., Milwaukee, Wis. 

85— Modern Concrete Products Co., Columbus, O. 

86— Karg & Smith, Westerville, O. 

87— E. K. Jennings & Son, Fitchville, O. 

88— Akron Art Stone Co., Akron, O. 

89— Owen Cement Products Co., Akron, O. 

90— F. M. Popenhagen Co., Cedar Rapids, la. 

91— Jamison & Gillogly, New Concord, O. 

92— Ideal Cement Stone Co., Omaha, Neb. 

93— Boston Natstone Co., Boston, Mass. 

94— Herman Goodin, New Lexington, O. 

95— Mood)' Bros., Dresden, O. 

96— Marietta Cement Co., Marietta, O. 

97— Ideal Concrete Construction Co., Joliet, Ill. 

98— B. J. Concrete Products Co., Red Oak, la. 

99— Gary B. Ernest, Coshocton, O. 

100— Elyria Lumber Co., Elyria, O. 

101— Wentz Lumber Co., Dover, O. 

102— E. Huff, Tuscarhwas, O. 

103— Oakley Concrete Block Co., Oakley, O. 

104— Norwood Concrete Block & Construction Co., Nor¬ 
wood, O. 

105— Art Stone Co., Sioux City, la. 

106— S. B. Johnson, Winterset, la. 

107— Kissel Concrete Block Co., Johnstown, Pa. 

108— Thiele Construction Co., Johnstown, Pa. 

109— H. Sam Rhoads Co., Taylorville, Ill. 

110— Brayton Cement Works, Brayton, la. 

111— Home Builders Supply Co., Connelsville, Pa. 

112— Ideal Concrete Products Co., New Castle, Pa. 

Plan of Organization. 

The Concrete Products Association is inter¬ 
national in character. Its principal office is in the 
city of Chicago. It is composed of members at 
large and members of local chapters and state 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS ASSOCIATION 573 


branches. Where local chapters exist it has juris¬ 
diction of its locality. Where a state branch 
exists, it has jurisdiction over the entire state. 
Membership may be held at large only if the mem¬ 
ber is not located in territory assigned to a state 
branch or a local chapter in good standing. 

A state branch or local chapter to be in good 
standing must maintain its affiliation with the in¬ 
ternational organization by paying per capita dues 
in amount of $2.50 per year. Such standing is 
indicated by an asterisk (*) in the list of associa¬ 
tions carried every month in the official journal 
of the Concrete Products Association. 


CHAPTER LXXI. 

AMERICAN CONCRETE PIPE ASSOCIA¬ 
TION. 

Manufacturers of concrete pipe first organized 
under the name of the Interstate Tile Manufac¬ 
turers’ Association. In 1914 the name was changed 
to American Concrete Pipe Association. The 
organization is composed of manufacturers of 
concrete drain tile, irrigation pipe, sewer pipe, 
pressure pipe and culvert pipe. 

In the early days of the association only nomi¬ 
nal dues were charged but with a change in policy 
to give greater service to members the dues were 
changed so that the larger producers pay more 
than the smaller producers. 

Excellent work has been done and is being done 
for the benefit of the pipe makers. Annual meetings 
are held and the proceedings are mimeographed 
or multigraphed and sent to all members. At the 
annual meetings papers are presented and lively 
discussions follow, all of which tends to increase 
the knowledge of pipe manufacture and pipe 
selling. 

The American Concrete Pipe Association is 
co-operating with other organizations to the end 
that high standards of quality will be recognized 
and maintained by the members. Part of the 
valuable work done for the members includes 
visits of the secretary to plants of members, to 
localities where trouble is reported and attendance 
at conventions of other organizations having to do 
with concrete pipe of any kind. Bulletins are 
issued from time to time and pamphlets are sup¬ 
plied to members for distribution to prospective 
buyers of drain tile, irrigation pipe, sewer pipe 
and water pipe. Membership in the association 
is well worth while for pipe manufacturers. 


CHAPTER LXXII. 


NATIONAL CONCRETE STAVE SILO 

ASSOCIATION. 

I 

The National Concrete Stave Silo Association 
was organized in the spring of 1917, the organiza¬ 
tion meeting being called by A. J. R. Curtis— 
then director of the extension department of the 
Portland Cement Association and now manager 
of the cement products bureau of the Portland 
Cement Association—the object being to promote 
the manufacture and use of concrete staves for 
all structures for which these units are suitable, 
including silos, coal pockets, grain tanks, corn 
cribs and various other farm buildings. 

Annual meetings are usually held in Chicago. 
At a meeting held in 1923 the discussion tended 
more to the technique of manufacturing good 
concrete than to selling the products. This senti¬ 
ment in favor of making good concrete is in¬ 
creasing wherever meetings of concrete products 
manufacturers are held. The makers of staves 
have, in general, solved the problem of selling and 
are in the majority of plants making good staves. 
The manufacturers are striving to maintain qual¬ 
ity in production and to attain perfection in this 
respect, knowing that the use of staves will in¬ 
crease as public confidence increases. 

Membership in this association is worth many 
times the annual dues and offers opportunity to 
benefit by co-operation which can only be accom¬ 
plished through organzation. At conventions 
those in attendance will renew acquaintance with 
old friends, make new friends and learn how 
others are overcoming the problems which arise 
in this branch of the concrete products industry. 
Ideas can be and are exchanged and new uses for 
staves are discussed. 



CHAPTER LXXIII. 


NATIONAL CINDER CONCRETE PROD¬ 
UCTS ASSOCIATION. 

In 1923 the manufacturers of cinder concrete 
products operating under licenses based on the 
F. J. Straub patent organized to increase the use 
of cinder concrete products to assist in upholding 
the quality of same, to engage in research work 
for the improvement of the methods of manufac¬ 
ture, to encourage the enactment of adequate and 
reasonable legislation relating to the use of cinder 
concrete products, and to work for the advance¬ 
ment of the cinder concrete products industry. 

This organization is probably the baby associa¬ 
tion in the concrete products industry but prom¬ 
ises to develop into a very strong body due to the 
merits of the products made by the members. 
One thing this organization can do and probably 
will do as it grows in numerical and financial 
strength is to advertise the products of its mem¬ 
bers in such periodicals as are read by prospec¬ 
tive home builders and thereby instruct the home 
builders in the qualities of the products. The 
concrete products industry is growing rapidly. 
The growth should be based on intelligent promo¬ 
tion which will tend to cause a steady demand 
for quality building units. The first paragraph 
of this chapter outlines the principal objects of 
the National Cinder Concrete Products Associa¬ 
tion. With such objectives the members have 
much to work for and all members should do their 
part to achieve the objectives. 

This and other organizations of special groups 
forming branches of the large concrete products 
industry in general prove that only by organized 
effort can industry be developed on a basis which 
will benefit the members of the public. 



577 


ASSOCIATION ADDRESSES 

ASSOCIATION ADDRESSES. 

Following is a list of associations, national and 
state, having to do with the concrete products 
industry. The addresses are correct at date of 
publication in 1924. For the purpose of check¬ 
ing the addresses at a later date the reader is 
referred to the current issue of Concrete Prod¬ 
ucts, the official journal of the Concrete Products 
Association, 53 West Jackson boulevard, Chicago. 

National Associations. 

Concrete Products Association, 53 West Jackson 
boulevard, Chicago. 

American Concrete Institute, 1807 East Grand boule¬ 
vard, Detroit. 

Portland Cement Association, 111 West Washington 
street, Chicago. 

American Concrete Pipe Association, 111 West Wash¬ 
ington street, Chicago. 

National Cinder Concrete Products Association, Lan¬ 
caster, Pa. 

National Concrete Stave Silo Association, 111 West 
Washington street, Chicago. 

Concrete Products Association of Canada, 511 Federal 
building, Toronto, Ont., Canada. 

National Slag Association, 933 Leader-News building, 
Cleveland, O. 

National Crushed Stone Association, 405 Hartman 
building, Columbus, O. 

National Sand and Gravel Association, Washington, 
D. C. 

State Associations. 

Illinois Concrete Products Association, 111 West 
Washington street, Chicago. 

Iowa Concrete Products Association, Hubbell build¬ 
ing, Des Moines, la. 

Mid-West Concrete Products Association, Omaha, 
Neb. 

Ohio Concrete Products Association, 540 Dublin street, 
Columbus, O. 

Rhode Island Concrete Products Association, Box 55, 

Edgewood, R. I. . 

Texas Concrete Products Association, Southwestern 
Life building, Dallas, Tex. 

Wisconsin Concrete Products Association, First Wis¬ 
consin National Bank building, Milwaukee, Wis. 


CHAPTER LXXIV. 


MACHINERY AND MOLDS. 

Manufacturers of machinery or molds for 
making ornamental products such as lighting 
standards, garden furniture, porch and bridge 
spindles, lintels, trimstone, etc., are as follows: 

Art Concrete Works, Pasadena, Cal. 

Artisan Cement Mold Co., Elkhart, Ind. 

Carl J. Nilsson, Chicago. 

Concrete Equipment Co., Holland, Mich. 

Goshen Cement Column Co., Goshen, Ind. 

Ideal Concrete Machinery Co., Cincinnati, O. 

J. B. Foote Foundry Co., Fredericktown, O. 

W. E. Dunn Mfg. Co.. Holland, Mich. 

Ornamental Concrete Co., Aurora, Ill. 

Manufacturers of Molds for Highway Markers. 

George W. Jackson, Belleville, Ill. 

National Concrete Machinery Co., Madison, Wis. 

Manufacturers of Machines for Making Silo Block. 

Anchor Concrete Stone Co., Columbus, O. 

Besser Sales Co., Chicago. 

Concrete Block Machine Co., Newark, N. J. 

J. C. Coyne, Fond du Lac, Wis. 

W. E. Dunn Mfg. Co., Holland, Mich. 

J. B. Foote Foundry Co., Fredericktown, O. 

Helm Brick Machine Co., Cadillac, Mich. 

Ideal Concrete Machinery Co., Cincinnati, O. 
Kenny Hoflund Co., Hawarden, la. 

Kent Machine Co., Kent, O. 

Keystone Silo Corp., Minneapolis. 

Multiplex Concrete Machinery Co., Elmore, O. 
Perfect Silo Co., Delaware, O. 

Raber & Lang, Kendallville, Ind. 

Zagelmeyer Cast Stone Block Machinery Co., Bay 
City, Mich. 

Manufacturers of Machines for Making Roofing Tile. 

American Ambi Corp., New York. 

American Roofing Tile Co., Terre Haute, Ind. 
Brock & Co., St. Louis. 

Concrete Tile Machinery Co., Cicero, Ill. 
Crawfordsville Foundry Co., Crawfordsville, Ind. 



MACHINERY AND MOLDS 


579 


L. Hansen, Kansas City, Mo. 

Phoenix Tile Machine Co., Phoenixville, Pa. 

Otto Walter, Perryville, Ind. 

Manufacturers of Machines for Making Silo Staves. 

Besser Sales Co., Chicago. 

F. R. Ensminger, Gillman, la., (Wet Mix 
Process). 

Forrest S. Hart & Son, Batavia, N. Y. 

New Monarch Machine & Stamping Co., Des 
Moines, la., (Dry Tamp Process, Molds and 
Accessories). 

Playford Mfg. Co., Elgin, Ill., (Wet Mix Process) 
Secor Silo Co., Lawton, Mich. 

Manufacturers of Machines for Making Corn Crib 
Block and Staves. 

Anchor Concrete Machinery Co., Columbus, O. 

J. B. Foote Foundry Co., Fredericktown, O. 

Forrest S. Hart & Son, Batavia, N. Y. 

Permanent Products Co., Chicago. 

Manufacturers of Molds for Concrete Burial Vaults. 

Automatic Sealing Vault Co., Peru, Ind. 

R. B. Bennett, Westerville, O. 

Chicago Cement Burial Vault & Casket Co., Chi¬ 
cago. 

Doswell & Kover, Fort Wayne, Ind. 

Francis Machine Co.. St. Louis. 

Norwalk Vault Co., Norwalk, O. 

Norwalk Mold Co., Norwalk, O. 

Impervious Burial Case & Mold Co., Tiffin. O. 

C. M. Peckham & Co., Norwalk, O. 

George Ziegele, Peoria, Ill. 

Catch Basin Block Machines. 

Thomas W. Noble & Co., Chicago. 

Multiplex Concrete Machinery Co., Elmore, O. 


580 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

Manufacturers of Equipment Making Con¬ 
crete Pipe and Drain Tile. 

Sewer Pipe Machines. 

Besser Sales Co., Chicago. 

Concrete Machinery & Supply Co., Los Angeles, 
Cal. 

Heer Manufacturing Co., Monte Vista, via Ontario, 
Cal. 

Martin Iron Works, Los Angeles, Cal. 

McCracken Machinery Co., Sioux City, la. 

Pioneer Mfg. Co., Waterloo, la. 

Sewer Pipe Molds. 

Angle Concrete Mold Co., New York. 

Blaw-Knox Co., Pittsburgh and Chicago. 

Concrete Equipment Co., Holland, Mich. 

W. E. Dunn Mfg. Co., 400 24th street, Holland, 
Mich. 

Ideal Concrete Mchy. Co., Cincinnati. O. 

Martin Iron Works, Los Angeles, Cal. 

G. Paul Musselman, Warren, Pa. 

Pioneer Mfg. Co., Waterloo, la. 

Quinn Wire & Iron Works, Boone, la. 

Raber & Lang Mfg. Co., Kendallville, Ind. 

Drain Tile Machines. 

Besser Sales Co. (Hand & Power), Chicago. 
Bragstad Concrete Mach’y Co., Canton, S. D. 
Concrete Machinery Co., Sturgis, Mich. 

Concrete Mach’y & Supply Co., Los Angeles, Cal. 
W. E. Dunn Mfg. Co., Holland, Mich. 

J. B. Foote Foundry & Machine Co., Frederick- 
town, O. 

H. S. Holmes Co., St. Johns, Mich. 

Lampman Tool Co., Angola, Ind. 

McCracken Machinery Co., Sioux City, la. 

Pioneer Mfg. Co., Waterloo, la. 

Quinn Wire & Iron Works, Boone, la. 

Willsea Works, The, Rochester, N. Y. 


CHAPTER LXXV. 


COLLEGE AND COMMERCIAL LABO¬ 
RATORIES EQUIPPED FOR TEST¬ 
ING CONCRETE PRODUCTS. 

ALABAMA: 

Birmingham: 

♦Pittsburgh Testing Laboratory, 215 Clark building, 
W. L. Caldwell, manager. 

ARIZONA— 

Tucson: 

University of Arizona, Dept, of Civil Engineering, 
Prof. F. C. Kelton. (Maximum testing capacity 
100,000 lbs.) 

CALIFORNIA— 

Berkeley: 

University of California, Dept, of Civil Engineeering, 
Prof. C. T. Wiskocil. (To make only such tests 
as commercial laboratories in San Francisco are 
not equipped to handle.) 

♦Smith, Emery & Co. 

*H. E, Noble & Co. 

Fresno: # 

♦The Twining Laboratories, 2146 Merced street. 

Los Angeles: 

♦Raymond G. Osborne. 

Pasadena: 

California Institute of Technology, R. R. Martel, 
Instructor in Civil Engineering. 

San Francisco: 

♦Eaton Laboratories. 

♦Robert W. Hunt & Co., 251 Tearney St. 

Stanford University: 

Leland Stanford Junior University, Dept, of Civil 
Engineering, Prof. C. Moser. 

COLORADO— 

Boulder: 

University of Colorado, Dept, of Civil Engineering, 
Prof. W. C. Huntington. 

Denver: 

♦H. F. Crocker, Century building. 

Golden: 

Colorado School of Mines. 

CONNECTICUT— 

Hartford: 

Henry Soutter Engineering Co. 

New Haven: 

Yale University, Dept, of Engineering Mechanics, 
Pi*of, C. J. Tilden. 

Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University, Dept, 
of Civil Engineering, Winchester Hall, Prof. R. H. 
Suttie. 

DELAWARE— 

N e wark: 

Delaware College, Dept, of Civil Engineering, Prof. 
R. W. Thoroughgood. 



582 


MACHINE MANUFACTURERS 


FLORIDA— 

Jacksonville: 

*Florida Testing Laboratory, Inc., 127 Talleyrand 
avenue. 

GEORGIA— 

Atlanta: 

Georgia School of Technology, Prof. F. C. Snow, 
Laboratory Director. 

IDAHO— 

Moscow: 

University of Idaho, College of Engineering, C. N. 
Little, Dean. 

ILLINOIS— 

Chicago: 

Armour Institute of Technology. 3300 Federal street, 
G. F. Gebhardt, M. E. 

*Modjeski & Angier, 610 Blue Island avenue. 

*Robert W. Hunt & Co., 445 N. Sacramento street. 
Lewis Institute, Madison and Robey streets, Prof. 
D. A. Abrams. 

Pittsburg Testing Laboratories. 

Urbana: 

University of Illinois, Prof. A. N. Talbot. 

INDIANA— 

LaFayette: 

Purdue University, College of Engineering, Prof. W. 
K. Hatt. 

Terre Haute: 

Rose Polytechnic Institute, Dept, of Civil Engineer¬ 
ing, Prof. H. A. Thomas. 

IOWA— 

Ames: 

Iowa State College, Prof. Anson Marston, Dean of 
Engineering. 

Des Moines: 

*Patzig Testing Laboratory, Monroe L. Patzig. 

KANSAS— 

Lawrence: 

University of Kansas, Dept, of Mechanics, Prof. H. 
A. Rice. 

Manhattan— 

Kansas State Agricultural College, Road Materials 
Laboratbry, Prof. R. A. Seaton. 

KENTUCKY— 

Lexington: 

L T niversity of Kentucky, Dept, of Civil Engineering, 
Prof. D. V. Terrell. 

LOUISIANA— 

New Orleans: 

The Tular.e University of Louisiana, W. B. Gregory, 
Professor of Experimental Engineering. 

MARYLA ND— 

Baltimore: 

Johns Hopkins University, Dept, of Engineering, J. 
T. Thompson. 

*The Meade Laboratories, Inc., 11 East Fayette 
street. 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 583 

College Park: 

Maryland State College, School of Engineering, M. A. 
Pyle. 

MA SSACHUSETTS— 

Boston: 

*J. R. Worcester & Co., 79 Milk street. 

Cambridge: 

*H. W. Hayward, 222 Charles River Road. 

Newton Highlands: 

*Sanford E. Thompson. 

Springfield: 

*The Emerson Laboratory, 145 Chestnut street. 
Watertown Arsenal: 

Ordnance Department, United States Army. 

W orcester: 

Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Dept, of Civil Engi¬ 
neering, Prof. F. W. Roys. 

MICHIGAN— 

Detroit: 

*Perry Testing Laboratory, 5th street and River 
front. 

’"Detroit Testing Laboratory. 

MINNESOTA— 

Duluth: 

■•'Minnesota Testing Laboratories, Inc., Glencoe build¬ 
ing. 

*Duluth Testing Laboratory. 

Minneapolis:' 

The University of Minnesota, Experimental Engi¬ 
neering building, G. A. Maney. 

St. Paul: 

*Quincy A. Hall, Pioneer building. 

MISSOURI— 

Columbia: 

University of Missouri, School of Engineering, Prof. 
H. A. LaRue. 

Kansas Citv; 

* Kansas City Testing Laboratory, 700 Baltimore avenue. 
Rolla: 

Missouri School of Mines, Dept, of Civil Engineering, 

. Prof. E. S. McCandliss. 

St. Louis: 

Washington University, Dept, of Civil Engineering, 
Prof. J. Li, Van Ornum. 

*Robert W. Hunt & Co., Syndicate Trust building. 
MONTANA— 

Bozeman: 

University of Montana, Dept, of Civil Engineering, 
Prof. Leon D. Conkling. 

NEBRASKA— 

Lincoln: 

The University of Nebraska, Dept, of Applied Me¬ 
chanics, G. R. Chatburn, Chairman. 

NEW JERSEY— 

Hoboken: 

Stevens Institute of Technology, Carnegie Lab. of 
Mech. Engineering, Robert M. Anderson. 

New Brunswick: 

Rutgers College, Dept, of Civil Engineering, S. A. 


584 CONCRETE PRODUCTS 

Stephenson, Jr. (Maximum testing capacity, 100,- 
000 lbs.) 

NEW MEXICO— 

State College: 

College of Agri. & Mech. Arts, Dept, of Civil and 
Irrig. Engrg., J. W. Jordan. (Maximum testing 
capacity, 60,000 lbs.) 

NEW YORK— 

Buffalo: 

*Buffalo Testing Laboratory, Elliott Square building. 
Ithaca: 

Cornell University, College of Civil Engineering, Prof. 
H. H. Scofield. 

Lackawanna: 

*Babcock Testing Laboratory. 

New York: 

“"Robert W. Hunt & Co., 90 West street. 

“'Pittsburgh Testing Laboratory, 50 Church street, W. 

F. Hammett, Manager. 

“'Hill & Ferguson, 112 East 19th ,-treet. 

*J. W. Howard, 1 Broadway. 

*Hildreth & Co., 15 Broad street. 

*C. F. McKenna, Ph. D., Hudson Terminal building, 
50 Church street. 

Cooper Union, Dept, of Civil Engineering, Hewitt 
building, Prof. F. E. Foss. 

Columbia University, Testing Laboratory, Albin H. 
Beyer. 

Potsdam: 

Clarkson College of Technology. Dept, of Civil Engi¬ 
neering, Prof. Frederick C. Wilson. 

Schenectady: 

Union College, Dept, of Civil Engineering, Prof. 
Frank P. McKibben. 

Syracuse: 

Syracuse University, Experimental Engineering 
Dept., Lockwood N. Street. 

“'Girard M. Parce, 121 E. Seneca street. 

Troy: 

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Prof. T. R. Lawson. 
University Heights: 

New York University, Walter S. L. Cleverclon, Su¬ 
pervisor of Property. 

NORTH CAROLINA— 

Asheville: 

*C. S. Waddell, Patton avenue. 

NORTH DAKOTA— 

Agricultural College: 

North Dakota Agricultural College, Dept, of Civil 
Engineering, Prof. R. H. Slocum. 

OHIO— 

Akron: 

University of Akron, College of Engineering, R. C. 
Durst. 

Cleveland: 

Case School of Applied Science, Frank H. Neff. 
“"Crowell & Murray, Perry-Payne building. 

“'Industrial Testing Laboratory, Superior building, H. 
R. Kimmel, Chemist. 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 585 

♦Osborn Engineering - Co., Osborn building. 

♦Francis J. Peck & Co., 731 Williamson building. 

Columbus: 

Ohio State University, Mechanical Engineering 
Laboratory. 

OKLAHOMA— 

Norman: 

The University of Oklahoma, College of Engineering, 
Prof. James C. Davis. (Maximum testing capacity, 
100,000 lbs.) 

OREGON— 

Corvallis: 

Oregon State Agricultural College, Dept, of Mechanics 
and Material, S. H. Graf. 

Portland: 

*E. W. Lazell, Ph. D., 537 Railway Exchange building. 
PENNSYLVANIA— 

Allentown: 

♦Allentown Testing Laboratory, Fourth and Linden 
streets, Ernest B. McCready, Proprietor. 
Gettysburg: 

Pennsylvania College, Dept, of Civil Engineering, 
Prof. Frank H. Clutz. (Maximum testing capac¬ 
ity, 100,000 lbs.) 

Philadelphia: 

♦Henry S. Spackman, 2024 Arch street. 

♦Booth, Garrett & Blair, 404 Locust street. 

Pittsburgh: 

♦Gulick & Henderson Co., 525-9 Third avenue. 
University of Pittsburgh, School of Engineering 
Prof. J. Hammond Smith. 

♦Pittsburgh Testing Laboratory, Seventh and Bedford 
avenue. P. J. Freeman, Etngineer. 

♦Robert W. Hunt & Co., Monongahela Bank building. 

South Bethlehem: 

Lehigh University, Dept, of Civil Engineering, Prot. 
R. J. Fogg. 

State College: 

Pennsylvania State College, Dept, of Civil Engineer¬ 
ing, Prof. E. D. Walker. 

SOUTH DAKOTA— 

V«rmillion: 

University of South Dakota, Dept, of Civil Engi¬ 
neering, Prof. J. Maughs Brown. 

TENNESSEE— 

Knoxville: 

University of Tennessee, College of Engineering, 
Prof. N. W. Dougherty. (Maximum testing capacity 
100,000 lbs.) 

TEXAS— 

Dcillcis * 

♦Southwestern Laboratories, 1812% Main street. 

Fort Worth: 

♦Southwestern Laboratories, 821% Monroe street. 
Galveston: 

♦Galveston Laboratory, Felix Paquin, Chemist. 


586 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


UTAH— 

Salt Lake City: 

State Testing - Laboratory. State Capitol, Fred Sutton. 
♦Salt Lake City Testing Laboratory. 

VERMONT— 

Northfield: 

Norwich University, Dept, of Civil Engineering, Prof. 
A. E. Winslow. 

VIRGINIA— 

Norfolk: 

♦Norfolk Testing Laboratory, 109 West City Hall 
avenue, Burton J. Ray, Chemist in Charge. 
Richmond: 

♦Froehling & Robertson. 

WASHINGTON— 

Seattle: 

University of Washington, Dept, of Civil Engineering, 
Ira L. Collier. 

WISCONSIN— 

Madison: 

The University of Wisconsin, College of Mechanics 
and Engineering, Prof. M. O. Withey. 

Milwaukee: 

Marquette University, College of Engineering, J. C. 
Pinney, Jr., Dean. (Maximum testing capacity, 
50,000 lbs.) 

CANADA— 

Montreal, Quebec: 

♦Canadian Inspecting and Testing Laboratories, Ltd. 
♦Robert W. Hunt & Co., McGill building. 

Toronto: 

♦Canadian Inspection & Testing Co., Manning Arcade 
Annex, R. Robertson Deans, Manager. 

Vancouver: 

♦Canadian Inspection and Testing Laboratories, Ltd. 
Winnipeg: 

♦Canadian Inspection and Testing Laboratories, Ltd. 


♦Means Commercial Laboratory. 




CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


587 


MEDUSA—the Only 
Waterproofed White Cement 

F OR pre-cast work Medusa Water¬ 
proofed White offers the products 
manufacturer an ideal material. 

Medusa White has all the properties of a 
true portland cement with a finished color 
that is pure white. 

The beauty of the finished product is protected 
with Medusa Waterproofing. This is ground 
into the cement at the mill in exactly the cor¬ 
rect proportion. 

It’s White, it’s Waterproof, and it’s a true 
Portland Cement. 

The Sandusky Cement Company 

Cleveland 

Manufacturers of Medusa Stainless White 
Cement (Plain and Waterproofed); Medusa 
Waterproofing (Powder or Paste ) ; and Medusa 
Gray Cement (Plain and Waterproofed). 

MEDUSA 

WATERPROOFED 

WHITE CEA\ENT 









588 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


Make Your Product 
Impervious to Water 


M EDUSA Waterproofing comes in 
two ways, powder or paste. The 
powder is an insoluble water-repellent 
which when distributed through the mass 
sets up a water-resistance that overcomes 
the natural tendency of the mass to ab¬ 
sorb water. 

Medusa Waterproofing Paste is a soluble 
compound, emulsifying readily in the mix 
water. In the mix the excess lime and 
the stearate base of the paste unite form¬ 
ing exactly the same compound as the 
Waterproofing Powder. 

Use either with confidence in the result— 
perfect waterproofing. 

The Sandusky Cement Company 

* Cleveland 

Manufacturers of Medusa Stainless White 
Cement (Plain and Waterproofed); Medusa 
Gray Cement (Plain and Waterproofed); and 
Medusa Waterproofing (Powder and Paste). 



MEDU 


WATERPROOFING 

* * * Powder or Paste * * v 






CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


589 



WELLER MFG. CO. 

1820-1856 N. KOSTNER AVE. 

CHICAGO, ILL. 


MATERIAL HANDLING 
EQUIPMENT 


EMPLOY WELLER MACHINERY TO HANDLE THE 
RAW MATERIALS AND FINISHED PRODUCTS ME¬ 
CHANICALLY INSTEAD OF WITH HAND LABOR. 

WE MAKE EQUIPMENT TO MEET REQUIREMENTS. 


APRON FEEDERS 
BELT CONVEYORS 
TRIPPERS 
CHAIN CONVEYORS 
SPIRAL CONVEYORS 
BUCKET ELEVATORS 
ELEVATOR BUCKETS 


SCREENS 
POWER SHOVELS 
STORAGE BINS 
BINGATES 

STRUCTURAL STEEL 
WORK 

SHEET METAL WORK 
TRANSMISSION 


WILL 
INCREASE 
THE OUTPUT 
AND 
REDUCE 
YOUR LABOR 
COSTS 












590 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 



Stands for Quality 


THE 

CONCRETE PRODUCTS 
ASSOCIATION 

Wants Your 
Membership 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiii 


Co-operation is the keynote of success in any industry. 

Co-operation in its fullest sense is the aim of the Con¬ 
crete Products Association. 

The benefits to be derived thereby will repay your mem¬ 
bership fee again and again. 

Some of the problems to be solved by 
co-operative effort : 

Equitable Building Regulations, 

Equitable Fire Insurance Rates, 

Correct Freight Classification and Rates, 

Standardization of Methods of Manufacturing, 
Improving Quality of Concrete Products, 
Gaining Recognition for Quality Concrete Products, 

Determining Fire Resistance of Concrete Building 
Units. 

Your $10 per annum includes the official journal CON¬ 
CRETE PRODUCTS without the payment of additional 
dues. Send in your application today. DO IT NOW! 

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII1II1IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII! 

James E. Montgomery, Secy. 

CONCRETE PRODUCTS ASSOCIATION 

542-3 Monadnock Block : Chicago 




CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


591 


7 - . , "N 

Speed with Simplicity 

The speed of an automatic combined 
with the simplicity of a power ma¬ 
chine, makes the 


Ideal Roll-Over Stripper 

an “ideal” machine in every way. Economical 
in operation, using the same pallet for any 
size block or tile. Feeds and tamps at same 
time. Write for data. 

The Ideal Concrete Machinery Co. 

5000 Spring Grove Ave. Cincinnati, Ohio 



Pat. 
applied 
f r 


Block being stripped 
on to delivery table. 

This shows delivery 
table with block 
ready for off-bearing. 













592 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 




The mixer that mixes with the ex¬ 
perience of seventeen years built 
right into it. 

Earns profit for you with the very price 
you pay for it and thereafter the profit is 
made from quick, consistent, economical 
mixing. Does more—costs less! 

The Ohio represents maximum sturdiness 


The Ohio Concrete Ms 


iiiiiiiiii 










CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


593 



plus efficiency. It is a light but 
strong* mixer sold within the price 
range of other mixers. Can be fur¬ 
nished on solid rubber tires and with Hyatt 
roller bearings. Ohio Mixers are built in 
any style to suit the purchaser. Write for 
catalog and prices. We can save money 
for you. Let us prove it. 

cie Co., Columbus, Ohio 


















594 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


1 This house foundation and all 8-inch plain box (no facing) plas- 
tered directly on the blox and after five years no sign of damp¬ 
ness. Chimney also made of blox. 

9 First Church of Christ Scientist. Superstructure cream face brick 
" veneer backed up with cinder blox. Interior plaster is applied 
direct to face of cinder block. This church enjoys the lowest fire 
insurance rate of any church in Springfield, Ohio. 

Q This auto warehouse 387 ft. long made of 4-inch blox with 16-inch 
pilasters. It is a positive fact that no rain or dampness of any 
kind has ever shown through this 4-inch solid wall. 




situation and growth of more than 50 Straub licensed plants. 
Of every 9^4 concrete blox made in the United States in the 
last year, one of them was a Straub Cinder Block. 


Francis J. Straub had the vision, courage, will and indefatig¬ 
able industry to follow an idea from its conception to its ulti¬ 
mate and enthusiastic adoption by the building profession in 
the face of objections of the “wise ones,” to say nothing of 
those selfishly opposed to the introduction of Straub Blox. 
This opposition was even carried to the U. S. Court of Ap¬ 
peals where a unanimous decision was rendered in favor of 
Straub Blox. 

Every claim made for Straub Blox is true! Instead of try¬ 
ing to conceal any shortcomings, Straub Blox are voluntarily 
subjected to the most rigid test. Here we illustrate how 
thoroughly we practice what we preach ! 


CROZIER-STRAUB, Inc., 


















CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


595 


'i 


IONCRETE BUILDING BLOX 

July 12, 1924, a house 
built of Brick, Clay 
Tile and Straub Cin¬ 
der Blox was put 
through a fire test 
after first having a 
10-ton load of pig 
iron carried on cin¬ 
der block party wallj 
The fire, after at¬ 
taining a heat of 
1540 degrees F., was 
quenched at the end 
of one hour and a 
half. 

E. L. Conwell & 

Co., Philadelphia, 
registered p r o f e s- 
sional engineers, re¬ 
ported tha/t 93% of 
the bricks were useless after the fire. All the clay tile was 
badly cracked, checked and unfit for use, while only two of 
the 637 Straub Blox were cracked—the remainder were un¬ 
injured beyond surface calcination to a maximum degree in 
a few cases of in. 

The ratio between the unit strength and the wall strength of 
Straub Blox was 66% and for clay brick 23^4% as deter¬ 
mined by tests at Columbia University. 

Such strength and fire resistance in wall construction are 
attainable only with Straub Blox. 

Such tests account for Straub popularity, confidence and 
sales. Why not make the best? 

Write for full details. 

Responsible parties will be licensed to manufacture and sell in 
open territory. 

Beautiful fireproof homes built of ashes! That is a strange 
dream which has come true. 



120 West 42nd St., NEW YORK CITY 







596 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


This BESSER Book 

The Besser Line of Concrete Products Machin¬ 
ery is so great and so complete, that it is impos¬ 
sible to convey a correct idea of it in a small ad¬ 
vertisement. 

But this book on the various and numerous units 
of the Besser Machinery Line, and on the manu¬ 
facture and use of concrete block, brick and tile, 
will be invaluable to anyone who contemplates go¬ 
ing into the concrete products business, or who is 
already in and isn’t getting full production ef¬ 
ficiency. 

Don’t Experiment — 
Come to BESSER First 

It will save you “shopping around.” If it is a Hand 
Machine—we have it, a large variety and a bit better. 
Power Tampers—certainly, you can’t find their equal. 
Mixers, Skip Loaders, Semi-Automatic Installations, 
Cars, Hoisting Machinery —everything necessary for a 
concrete products plant, and for big production and 
profits, the Great Besser Single and Double Automatics 
for Block, Brick and Tile, that lead the World. 

Our engineers will also design and arrange your plant 
for you so that your men and machinery will get the 
most efficiency, and your material move without a hitch. 
That service is vital in big Besser production. 

If you’re going in, or intend staying in the concrete 
products business—sooner or later you’ll have to have 
a Besser. 


Better Own A BESSER Than Compete With One 











CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


597 


Is FREE To YOU 



BESSER SALES COMPANY 

C. B. Dutton, Pres. S. H. Wightman, V-Pres . H. S. Martin, Sec’y 

Complete Equipment for Concrete Products Plants. 

Monadnock Building CHICAGO 


























598 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


, |j j jj ■ jh 


ANCHOR CONCRETE MACHINERY CO 


COLUMBUS, OHIO 



ANCHOR STRIPPERS 



THE GREAT GENERAL 
PURPOSE DOWN FACE 
MACHINE 

Shown here is the well-known 
Hobbs Machine, a part of the 
Anchor line, equipped with 
Power Feeder and Elevator. 
Many plants throughout the 
country now using the Anchor 
Tamper and Hobbs Machine 
will appreciate such an installa¬ 
tion as this. 


Anchor strippers are sturdy 
and well built. Furnished 
with any size and shape of 
cores desired. They are 
made in two sizes; the one 
shown here and a big power 
type. The best way to make 
good, plain blocks rapidly. 


THE HOBBS 


























CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


599 



ANCHOR CONCRETE MACHINERY 


CO 


COLUMBUS, OHIO 


' 



ANCHOR 
HIGH-TEST TILE 

A peculiar, patented design 
of tile which enable the use 
of a very wet mix. The 
diagonal ribs afford greater 
strength in the wall. Each 
tile has a perfect hand-hold 
and a wide mortar bed. 
Five sizes of tile made on 
all machines. Machines fur¬ 
nished as shown here, also 
in large automatic size. 


ANCHOR BRICK 

Anchor Brick Machines are made 
in two types, face up, and face 
down. Both types furnished with 
either hand or power tamper. 
These machines are built for serv¬ 
ice and real production. Bat¬ 
teries of Anchor Brick Machines 
are used in the two largest cement 
brick plants in the world. 




























600 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


KENT SERVICE 

Let us analyze your markets, figure the cost of the 
equipment you need and furnish you with complete 
plans of a modern plant equipped with KENT labor- 
saving equipment. We have a corps of engineers who 
are specialists in laying out Concrete Products Plants 
—they are at your service. 

If you want to improve the quality of your product, 
increase your production or cut your costs, let us show 
you how KENT SERVICE coupled with KENT 
EQUIPMENT will do this for you. 


A PRODUCTION BLOCK MACHINE 



THE POST ECONOMY PUNCH 


Average production 200 to 
250 per hour, although we 
can refer you to plants 
where they make from 350 
to 400 blocks per hour on 
this machine. 


Height 11 feet. Weight 5 tons. 


Write for Description. 


A powerful automatic ma¬ 
chine for speedy and eco¬ 
nomical production of con¬ 
crete blocks. 


Makes Plain or Faced 
Blocks 16" long, 6, 8, 10 or 
12" wall thickness. Only 
one size pallet is required. 

Semi or Full Stripper. Wood 
or Metal Pallets. 


THE KENT MACHINE CO., KENT,OHIO 

New Yerk Office—152 W. 42nd St. Milwaukee Office—1649 14th St. 










CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


601 


KENT EQUIPMENT 



“KENT” TEe Ubor Saving 
Mixer for Concrete 
Products Plants. 

The KENT gets re¬ 
sults without man 
labor. Keep the 
hoppers or storage 
bins filled and it 
will automatically 
serve to your ma¬ 
chines perfectly 
mixed concrete. 

Send for Catalog. 



THE KENT STRIPPER 


An exceptionally heavy, well 
built machine for making plain 
blocks. Note the solid, rigid 
base—no bolted frame to shake 
loose. One quarter turn of the 
handle delivers the block—no 
foot pedal. 

Built to last—weighs over 700 
lbs. Not higher priced but a 
better machine. 

Let us tell you about it. 


KENT RED LINE PRODUCTS 


Kent Continuous Mixer Hayden Stripper Block Machine 

Post Automatic Block Machine Kent Jr. Batch Mixer 
Hayden Down Face Block Machine Concrete Post Machine 
Kent Stripper Block Machine Block Cars—Lift Trucks 

Elevator Equipment Automatic Elevator Feeder 

Step Molding Machine Automatic Tampers 

Sill and Lintel Molds Cast Iron Pallets 


THE KENT MACHINE CO., KENT, OHIO 

New York Offiiee—152 W. 42nd St. Milwaukee Office—1649 14th St. 
















602 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


C. K. WILLIAMS & CO. 

Manufacturers 

Anchor Brand 
Permanent Colors 

For 

Mortar, Cement, Brick, 
Concrete Block and Tile 

Shades: 

Brown, Black, Red, Green and Buff 


Verdolite Marble 

Combination Green and Red 

For 

Stucco Dash, Terrazzo Floors, 
Facing Concrete Block, and Bricks 

Our dash is prac¬ 
tically impervious to 
acid. _ 

Sizes 0, 1, 2 
Write for samples 


















CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


603 




The Peer of Them All! 



Ideal Block 
Plant Mixer 

From the standpoint of mixing, of‘ discharge, 
of lubrication—from every standpoint —you 
will find this remarkable new machine in a class 
of its own. 


This Mixer embodies the best ideas we have gained 
from 20 years’ experience in constructing block plant 
equipment. Very strong, very substantial, very 
reliable. Cost of upkeep is practically negligible. 


Write for details 

The Ideal Concrete Machinery Co. 


5000 Spring Grove Ave. Cincinnati, Ohio 









604 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 



MAPICO COLORS 

— for coloring — 

Concrete Blocks, Roofing Tiles, 
Stucco, Lintels, Door and Window 
Sills, Cornices, Balustrades, 
Flooring, and any other forms of 
concrete work where color is 
desired. 

BLACK RED YELLOW BROWN 

Strong and Permanent 

Full particulars, samples and 
quotations upon request . 

BINNEY & SMITH CO., 

41 East 42nd Street New York City 













CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


605 


For Concrete Products 

ATLAS WHITE 
PORTLAND CEMENT 

A TLAS WHITE, like Atlas Gray, is a 
true Portland Cement. It meets all re¬ 
quirements of the Standard Specifications for 
Portland Cement adopted by the United States 
Government and American Institute of Archi¬ 
tects. It has the permanence, high uniform 
quality, easy workability of Atlas Gray, differ¬ 
ing from it only in that iron has been elimin¬ 
ated, making it pure white and non-staining. 

Therefore it is useful for trimstone, garden 
ornaments, lamp posts and all concrete products 
that should be pure white, even textured and 
lasting. Easily tinted with mineral pigments. 
We will gladly give information on uses of 
Atlas White. 



THE ATLAS PORTLAND CEMENT CO. 

25 Broadway, New York, N. Y. 

Chicago Birmingham Independence, Kans. 

Philadelphia Boston St. Louis Des Moines 
Dayton Omaha Buffalo 

Kansas City Jacksonville, Fla. 









606 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


CONCRETE 

BLOCKS, BRICKS, BUILDING TRIM, LIGHTING 
AND FENCE POSTS, ORNAMENTAL WORK, 
GARDEN DECORATIONS, FLOORING, ETC. 

when faced with 


MICASPAR CRYSTALS 



is changed into 


SPARKLING GRANITE 

BEAUTIFUL, ARTISTIC and EVERLASTING 

Adds to your products a selling value five times 
greater than the facing cost. 

Made in six scientifically milled sizes, extremely 
hard, sharp and free from dust. Insures strength 
and beauty. Booklet, "Micaspar and How to Use 
It,” with free samples, mailed on request. 

CROWN POINT SPAR COMPANY, INC. 

101 Park Avenue, New York 












CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


607 




SPRING SUSPENSION 

JACKLIFT 

with NEW 

and improved 
release . 


This is our special model for handling- 
concrete blocks— lowers any load 
without shock or jar. 


Lifts higher—lifts easier—lifts vertically 
lifts in less space (handle to the side ) 


Springs that really help carry heavy loads smoothly 
must have plenty of travel. Since the JACKLIFT 
lifts either 2% or 3 inches, you can have a spring 
travel of either 1 inch or 1% inches and still keep 
a clear space of l 1 /^ inches under the legs of the 
wood platform. Spring travel is too limited to 
carry loads smoothly where the lift of the truck 
is less than 2% inches. Therefore, a “Smoother 
and Safer Carry” is another point where JACK¬ 
LIFT is superior to any other lift truck. 


Send for latest Catalog and Price List 


MODEL 


Branches in 22 principal 
Cities. 

Canadian Fairbanks- 
Morse Co., Ltd. 

Distributors for Canada 


LEWIS-SHEPARD 

COMPANY 

572 E. First Street 
Boston, Mass. 



























o08 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


A New Method of Entering the 


Concrete Products Field 



Concrete Block and Tile 


The undersigned control patents on molds for the form¬ 
ing of Block and Pipe, under the slush or WET POURED 
System. 

We want men to organize and become interested in 
companies to manufacture these products in all States 
and Territories. 

Molds are the most easily operated and economical on 
the market. 

Companies will be associated with and receive the benefit 
of a national organization. 

Superior equipment for making Concrete Brick under 
the BALDWIN SYSTEM. 

Write today to 

Angle Concrete Mold Company 

26 Cortlandt St. New York City 



































CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


609 



Produce Highest Quality Bricks 

You can do it with the machine that always lives 
up to its reputation of producing none but A-No. 1 
Bricks—the 

Ideal Concrete Brick Machine 


Makes bricks the 
correct way— 
tamped process, not pressed. 
This eliminates all voids and 
drives out air pockets, mak¬ 
ing solid, strong Brick. 

Send for complete 
information 




The Ideal Concrete Machinery Co. 



5000 Spring Grove Ave. 
Cincinnati, Ohio 


Ornamental Molds 

The new Norman Mold 
illustrated is only one of 
many attractive, money¬ 
making designs in the 
complete Ideal line. 










610 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 



STEWART MIXERS 




Built in 3, 5, 7 and 10 
cu. ft. sizes, in many 
models and styles, to 
suit your particular 
requirements. 


Write today for 
free catalog 
and price list 

STEWART MFG. CO. 

272 RATH ST., 

WATERLOO, - IOWA 


THE CONCRETE 

DOPE 

BOOK 

¥ 


Send me twenty-five cents (in 
stamps) for a copy of the 
“Concrete Dope Book, ” giving 
material facts and cost figures 
on concrete sidewalks, floors, 
walls, foundation blocks, 
brick, etc, 

W. H. STEWART, 

Station “A”, WATERLOO, IOWA 












CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


611 


VULCAN-LASTITE 

Protects Concrete against ACIDS, 
AIR, ALKALI, OILS, FUMES, WATER 


A Severe Permeability Test 

ROBERT W. HUNT & CO. 

Universally known inspection and analytic engineers, com¬ 
pleted some very severe tests with VULCAN-LASTITE to 
try its moisture resisting qualities. They report that— 

“Test specimens of concrete in the shape of 8"xl2" 
cylinders with a 5" pipe imbedded in the center of the 
cylinders and extending to within 2" of the bottom of 
the cylinder were prepared, using a mixture of one part 
of cement to three parts of torpedo sand and five parts 
of 1" crushed stone by measure. These cylinders were 
aged for 28 days. The interior of one concrete cylinder 
was coated with a coat of Vulcan-Lastite and after drying 
for one week a second coat of Vulcan-Lastite was applied. 
Eight days after the application of the second coat of 
Vulcan-Lastite the specimen was subjected to a permea¬ 
bility test in comparison with the uncoated specimen, the 
age of the concrete uncoated and coated with Vulcan- 
Lastite being 43 days. The specimens were subjected to 
increased pressures to determine the pressure to cause 
sweating on the outer surface and the maximum pressure 
to cause failure.” 

UNCOATED SPECIMEN: 

“Started to sweat at end of cylinder at 30 lbs. pressure. 

“End of cylinder forced off at 140 lbs. pressure. 

VULCAN-LASTITE COATED SPECIMEN: 

“No sweating at end of cylinder at 175 lbs. pressure. 

“End of cylinder forced off at 175 lbs. pressure.’’ 


Ask Us for Testimonials and Proof of Results. 

AMERICAN LASTITE CO. 

3166 Lincoln Ave. CHICAGO 

NOTE—Our Vulcan-Aluminite is a wonderful 
and beautiful product for Burial Vaults. 











612 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 



E S PA ft 0 L TILE ROOF 



Concrete roof tile above weigh only 4 % lbs. each. 
The new tamping mechanism on our portable 
machine increases ordinary production. Note 
cleated pallets. 


CRAWFORDSVILLE FOUNDRY CO. 

Merchants Bank Bldg., INDIANAPOLIS, IND. 



PALLET (Pat’d) 















CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


613 


Colored Portland Cement 

For 20 years the standard of American Mfgrs. 

♦ * * 

DeSmet Colored Portland Cement is not a new 
product. It has been on the American 
market for 20 years. 

It is non-fading in color. 

It is equal in tensile strength to gray 
cement. 

It is equal in setting hardness to gray 
cement. 

It is furnished in any color wanted. 

* * * 

THIS IS NOT A CEMENT COLOR—IT 
IS PORTLAND CEMENT MADE IN THE 
COLOR YOU WISEI TO USE AND AT A 
PRICE WHICH IS LESS THAN IT 
WOULD COST TO MIX CEMENT 
COLORS. 

IT IS GUARANTEED. 

* * * 

Samples and prices on request. 

DeSmet Quartz Tile Company 

Chamber of Commerce Bldg. 

Chicago, Illinois 








614 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


x-X 

T HE use of our crushed 
marble aggregates insures 
you the best material for all 
kinds of concrete products. 

Hunt’s Laboratory tests show 
our product mixed with one 
part cement and three parts 
sand g*ives a seven day average 
tensile strength of 392 pounds. 

Try them and get the best re¬ 
sults. 

x----- x 

GEORGIA MINERAL 
PRODUCTS COMPANY 

TATE, GEORGIA 

x-—- x 












CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


615 




with a capital “ S 

when the 


<< o> y 


Ideal Hand 
Block Machine 


is on the job! 


Gives a substantial output day after 
day—does it economically and at a 
profit. All Blocks are good and firm 
and shapely—solidly tamped, too. 

Install this busy and efficient Ideal Hand 
Model, and as your business grows, you will 
require our complete outfit, consisting of 
a Core Actuator, Conveying Feeder, Scraper 
and Finisher, and Tamper. 


Write for information 


The Ideal Concrete Machinery Co. 


5000 Spring Grove Ave. 



Trade Mark 







616 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 



800 Tamped Concrete 
Roof Tile Per Hour ! 

-with-- 

Hawthorne Automatic Machine 

With the Hawthorne Automatic Roof Tile Machine, 
four unskilled workmen can produce the best Concrete 
Roof Tile on the market at the rate of 800 per hour. 

Exclusive tamping process permits the use of coarse 
sand and produces the strongest tile made. 

The Hawthorne oil sprayer eliminates all labor in 
oiling pallets and consumes one-third the usual quan¬ 
tity of oil. 

Brilliant colors are applied wet by the Hawthorne 
color feed device which makes the color permanent, 
uniform, non-dusting and non-fading. 

Concrete Tile Machinery Co. 

Carl A. Carlson, President Leslie H. Allen, General Manager 

2136 S. 48th Ave. Cicero, Illinois 




















CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


617 



P~v-vSR£: 







! 


i 







BATCH MUttRS 0? VARIOUS ryP(S 


POWr.ft rAVfOfRS 


PORCH MOi-OS 


Tn.Ti»S DRUM MiXSRS 


Aojusrwu Sill a ho cap macuiscs 


GET THIS 

PANAMA CATALOG 

“/Mone/MaKingMadiin eiy 

G ct maxi¬ 
mum value for 
your money. 

Write for 
this 40-p age 
catalog describ¬ 
ing the most 
complete line 
and greatest 
value in exist- ^ 
ence. 


STAND 

MiXlB; 


MOUNTED 


BLOCK MACHINES 


•i 


IT ADFk AUTOMATIC 
BlOO\ vMmf.2 


•A? 


TheJ.B.Foo4e Foundry Co. FfedericMownQ. 

ESTABLISHED 20 YEARS. 


10 FRONT ST. 























618 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


A Better Surface 

—in less time 

—with less labor 

that’s what you 
get with the 
Berg Portable 
Surfacer and 
Finisher, the 
wonderful, com¬ 
pact machine 
which is being 
used on the 
Muscle Shoals 
project and oth¬ 
er concrete jobs, 
large and small. 

BERG Portable 
Surfacer and Finisher 

Its range of use is tremendously wide, the results beyond 
criticism. An unskilled workman becomes familiar with 
the Berg in a few hours, handling it as well as an expert 
mechanic. 

For surfacing concrete blocks, cast stone trim, benches, 
burial vaults or garden specialties of concrete, the Berg 
has no equal. For exposing the aggregate on any con¬ 
crete work, it performs without a hitch. 

If your work has to do with concrete , you’ll 
want complete information; write today. 

THE CONCRETE SURFACING MACHINERY CO. 

1205-07 Harrison Ave. Dept. CPA CINCINNATI, U. S. A. 



Surfacing Penstocks 
Wilson Dana, Muscle Shoals 

























CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


619 



UNIVERSAL 

BLOCK MAKER 


Universal Installation in One of the Largest Plants in 

Pennsylvania. 

LITERATURE ON REQUEST 

THOMAS W. NOBLE. (SL CO. 

Crilly Bldg'. Chicago 

















620 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


A STEADY INCOME 




is assured concrete block 
manufacturers by an in¬ 
vestment in the Unit Sack 
Cleaner. This machine 
will pick up the losses due 
to not obtaining- all the 
cement from the sacks, 
and due to freight charges 
and handling charges. 

It is standard equipment 
in many parts of the coun¬ 
try with block manufac¬ 
turers. Write us for fur¬ 
ther particulars. 

The Handy Sack Baler has 
been serving the concrete prod¬ 
uct manufacturers for fifteen 
years, eliminating fifty percent 
of the labor in tying up sacks. 
Guaranteed for ten years. A 
simple foot pressure does the 
baling. 



Lowest prices on Baling Wire for 
tying up empty cement sacks 


HANDY SACK BALER COMPANY 

“SPECIALISTS IN SACK PROBLEMS AND EQUIPMENT” 
CEDAR RAPIDS, IOWA 



















CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


621 



How Aggregate Is Being Produced 
with Least Labor and at Lowest Cost 

Sauerman Power Drag Scrapers provide a simple 
and money-saving method for excavating and convey¬ 
ing concrete aggregate either from pits or from outside 
storage piles. They are especially economical when 
operating over spans of 200 to 400 ft. 

The Sauerman Power Scraper is operated by one 
man, an unskilled laborer. This one man controls 
every operation of the scraper bucket while it digs its 
load, conveys it to the plant, dumps it automatically, 
and returns to the digging point for another load. Thus 
the scraper combines the functions of excavator and 
conveyor, eliminating labor costs and expensive re¬ 
handling machinery. 

There are two types of Sauerman power scraper 
buckets, adapted for different kinds of digging-. There 
are outfits of large or small size, giving the concrete block 
and tile manufacturer a wide selection to get the right 
capacity for his plant. We shall be glad to recommend 
the right size and type of equipment for your particular 
working conditions. 

Sauerman Bros., 478 S. Clinton St., Chicago 








622 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 




FINE CRUSHING 


FOR ALL 
PURPOSES 

ALL STEEL 


Whether your job be large or small, for hard or soft 
stone, there is a Universal force feed crusher that is 
suited to your needs. The illustration above shows 
our large capacity fine crushing machines. Made in 
six sizes, ALL STEEL frame, manganese equipped 
and capacities 15 tons to 100 tons per day crushed to 
sizes suitable for the manufacture of concrete prod¬ 
ucts. Also quickly adjusted for coarse crushing for 
road work or concrete construction. 


The small cut illustrates our 
small and medium sized ma¬ 
chines adjustable to crush to 
and finer at the rate of 
2 tons to 15 tons per day. 
Ideal for the concrete prod¬ 
ucts plant. 


WRITE US YOUR 
REQUIREMENTS 


UNIVERSAL CRUSHER COMPANY 

611 C Ave., W. - Cedar Rapids, Iowa. 









CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


623 



**•**?.* ’ 

' * 

♦ *< **$ 
'■ '*>>> t ft rt» V 




Don’t Carry Heavy Stuff— 
Let it Roll! 

"D UN a Mathews Gravity Roller Conveyer from car to yard, 
and every block or tile will seem to take on life as it 
hustles out—-fewer men will get more done than could ever be 
possible with hand-crews. 

Mathews Conveyers come in handy-length, portable units, with 
easy-running, ball-bearing rollers mounted in sturdy, well-braced 
steel frames. Universal couplings permit quick set-up and prompt 
demounting for removal to new location. 

Booklet contains live information. Shall we send your copy? 

Mathews Conveyer Company 

(Formerly Mathews Gravity Carrier Co.) 

Tenth Street, Ellwood City, Pa. 

Branch Factory : Port Hope, Ont. 


MATHEWS 


Conveyer Systems 












624 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


When in the Market 


FOR 


Gravity Conveyors 
Belt Conveyors 
Apron Conveyors 
Automatic Elevators 
Spiral Chutes 

ADDRESS YOUR INQUIRIES TO US 

We will gladly have one of our 
engineers make an analysis of 
your handling problem and sub¬ 
mit in layout form type of con¬ 
veying system which will ma¬ 
terially lower your handling 
costs. * 


Samuel Olson & Company 

2418 BLOOMINGDALE AVE. 5TH AVE. BLDG. 

CHICAGO, ILLINOIS NEW YORK- 






CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


625 



3 to 30 Cubic Feet—You Mix 

In A 

BLYSTONE 


G uarantees you Thoroughness and Uni¬ 
formity. More block to the batch; bet¬ 
ter quality. Your Cement Goes All the Way. 

The Blystone Patented Reverse Spiral Sys¬ 
tem of Shovels is the reason that there is 
one and only one “Mixer That Shovels.” 

Blystone Tile Machines 
Increase Your Market. 


BLYSTONE MANUFACTURING COMPANY 
1324 ARCH STREET CAMBRIDGE SPRINGS, PA. 








626 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 



■ Staple driven in 

concrete composition 

BIG RETURNS 

IN MAKING 

CONCRETE POSTS 

This is the big profit builder—the only 
post that will outlast wood or iron. 
Nails easily driven and will hold fast. 
Anchor at bottom keeps post in the 
ground. 

Your orders will call for hundreds of 
posts—you can sell thousands yearly. 

Our posts are light but strong. The 
price is right—the profit large. 

Let us tell you all about our steel molds 
for making these posts. 




Patented 


1546 Marquette Bldg., 


CHICAGO 






























CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


627 


BETTER BRICK 

at BIGGER PROFIT 



This is one of the many types of buildings 
built with Shope Brick. 

It answers the demand of the most particu¬ 
lar architect and builder and the economy 
of the Shope Process allows its manufac¬ 
ture in direct competition with clay brick 
of the highest quality. 

There is but one Shope plant to a territory. 
Eighteen manufacturers in various parts of 
the country are now successful producers. 

Let us send you full information. 

SHOPE BRICK COMPANY 

361 East Morrison St. - Portland, Oregon 














628 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


NORTHERN 



CEMENT 

BAG 

CLEANER 

Pat. Applied For 


Note the cross-section above. 

8 drops to every revolution! A tumbling and shaking 
operation in four directions—forward—outward—inward 
and backward. 

This is a cleaner that cleans ’em quick and thoroughly 
by the most scientific method. 

This cleaner is designed for a lifetime of hard use. 
Rust-proof and rugged. 

The NORTHERN easily cleans 3,000 bags in 10 hours. 
The fastest cleaner on the market! Equipped with either 
electric motor or gasoline engine. Motor is away from 
all dust—easily reached—always accessible and amply 
powered. 

The NORTHERN engine is light—trouble proof—sturdy 
and powerful. It burns all kinds of fuel. Can be mounted 
on portable truck. 

The NORTHERN is also furnished without power and 
with or without reduction gears and pulleys. 

A NORTHERN CAN’T BE BEAT 
for speed, economy and thorough cleaning of sacks. 

Let us send full particulars. 

• ' ' 9 5 t 

NORTHERN CONVEYOR & MFC. CO. 

MILWAUKEE, WIS. 








CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


629 



Products plants recognize the advantages 
and economy of using 

MILES TAMPERS 

25 years of experience in serving products 
men have enabled us to incorporate into all 
MILES equipment those features so essen¬ 
tial to successful economical production. 
MILES Tampers can be used with any block 
machine. Always dependable—always on 
the job. 

MILES Block Machines are conceded to be 
unequalled for speed of operation and dura¬ 
bility. They have proven their value in 
thousands of concrete products plants in all 
parts of the world. 

MILES Simplex Continuous Mixers are 

equipped with automatic measuring and 
feeding hopper which accurately measures 
and feeds all materials, which assures vou of 
a positive, thorough and uniform mixture 
at all times. 

Our 1924 general catalog is now ready for distribution , a copy 
will be gladly sent to you on request and there is no obligation. 

THE MILES MANUFACTURING CO. 

Dept. AI. JACKSON, MICH. U. S. A. 






630 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


The NORWALK VAULT 

A business in itself—an excellent side line— 
a big profitable proposition either way ! Sell¬ 
ing vaults is not a seasonable business—we 
cannot change the laws of nature. 

Here, then, is a business requiring little equip¬ 
ment and small capital. There is practically 
no competition with similar equipment. The 
NORWALK is conceded to be unexcelled. 
This vault embodies every worth while fea¬ 
ture—it is easily made and easily so]d on its 
merits. 

We sell the molds outright! NO TERRI¬ 
TORY TO BUY! 

There is nothing to hinder you and we will co¬ 
operate to the fullest extent in helping you 
get started and helping you to succeed as all 
other NORWALK VAULT MANUFACTUR¬ 
ERS are do¬ 
ing. 


Write for full 
particulars. 

THE NORWALK VAULT CO. 

71 Prospect St., - Norwalk, Ohio 












CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


631 



We Manufacture the Best Quality of 

Granite Concrete Garden Furniture 

- and - 

Granite Concrete Building Stone 


Our products do not check under any 
weather conditions. 

Will quote promptly on molds or stone 
for buildings on receipt of plans. 

ORNAMENTAL CONCRETE CO. 

AURORA, ILL. 


Purchase 

your 

garden 

furniture 

molds 

of 

us 


Liberal 

discounts 

to 

dealers 

on 

garden 

furniture 



















632 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 



No other Truck but PLIMPTON 
would answer our purpose. Nothing 
but 4 point suspension would be safe 
with this load.—The American Sani¬ 
tary Products Company, Inc., Stam- 
- ford, Conn. 

The Sturdy Plimpton (built like an auto¬ 
mobile) lasts a lifetime. With its full roll¬ 
er and ball bearing, forged, riveted, angle 
iron frame, wrought steel chassis and steel 
or iron wheels, the Plimpton carries heavy 
concrete products easily from place to place. 

Our Engineering Department can tell you 
how to cut down your pay roll by installing 
Plimptons. 

THE PLIMPTON LIFT TRUCK CORPORATION 

ELM COURT 

STAMFORD, CONN., U. S. A 

Representatives in all principal cities of United States. 


















CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


633 



THE SUPER-TRUCK FOR CONCRETE 
PRODUCTS PLANTS 


N OT only does the work of four or five men, but handles 
the “green’’ product direct from the machine to the 
curing room without breakage and without joggling it 
out of shape. 

Why? Because it has a super spring-frame a*d rubber 
tires. It is the only lift truck with a spring-frame fully sus¬ 
pended on eight coil springs. 

Buy a Barrett and you eliminate useless piling and repiling, 
handling and rehandling—you reduce your spoilage—and in¬ 
crease your profits. 


BARRETT-CRAVENS COMPANY 

1321 West Monroe Street, Chicago 
Grand Central Palace, New York 

Distributors in all principal cities 


w BARRETT LIFT-TRUCKS m 















634 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 



The Purest, Whitest 
Silica Sand 

A Manufactured Product 

Crystal Silica is produced by disintegrating St. Peter’s 
Rock, a white sandstone, and passing the product through 
intensive washing, rinsing and screening processes. 

The result is a rich white sand, consisting of clean, 
rounded granules which look, under the magnifying 
glass, like an assortment of pearls of various sizes. 

The deposit of St. Peter’s Rock in which our quarries 
are located (near Ottawa. Ill.) is noted for its free¬ 
dom from iron or other discoloring impurities. 

Crystal Silica, mixed with white cement, makes a 
strikingly beautiful white facing or stucco. Mixed with 
gray cement, it produces the true Blue Bedford Stone 
effect. 

Let us send you a sample. 

United States Silica Company 

Sole Producers of Crystal Silica 

1945 Peoples Gas Bldg., 

CHICAGO. 




CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


635 



The Schlueter 

MARVEL 


has a capacity greater than 
10 to 20 men working by 
hand in surfacing marble, 
terrazzo, mosaic, and cement 
floors of all kinds. Easy to 
operate, the discs revolve 
in opposite directions which 
throw dirt and grit toward 
the center, thus avoiding 
splashing and muss. Made of the highest grade ma¬ 
terials. 

Write for circulars and Free Trial Offer. 


CONCRETE CLINCH 

Will prove a real money maker for the cement contrac¬ 
tor. It not only saves time and labor but will waterproof 
anything made of concrete. Will clinch or bond newly 
mixed cement to old concrete and is guaranteed to hold 
fast on patches and repairs. 

SEND FOR ! NFORM ATION—SOLD UNDER A MONEY 

BACK GUARANTEE. 



The Schlueter Double Disc 

Rotary 

Surfacing and Polishing 
Machine 

will stand up under the 
hardest use. Practically self- 
controlled, due to discs re¬ 
volving in opposite direc¬ 
tions. Perfectly balanced, 
each disc is independent of 
the other and the entire 
weight being equally distrib¬ 
uted gives perfect results in 
waxing, polishing and scrub¬ 
bing. 


M.L. SCHLUETER 


228 West 1 llinois Street 

CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 









636 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 



CERESIT 

WATERPROOFING COMPOUND 

Does Double Duty ! 

1 Makes Concrete Impervious to Water 

^ For over 20 years, Ceresit Waterproofing 
Compound has been successfully used by 
architects, contractors and builders in ren¬ 
dering concrete, cement, plaster or cement 
stucco, impervious to water. Ceresit thor¬ 
oughly seals each tiny capillary pore, there¬ 
by destroying and positively repelling all 
attraction for water, and preventing leakage 
or absorption. The. beneficial action of 
Ceresit is positive and permanent. 



Increases Concrete Tensile Strength 

In addition to its waterproofing qualities, 
Ceresit Waterproofing Compound offers an¬ 
other outstanding advantage. Recent tests 
conducted by the Pittsburgh Testing Lab¬ 
oratory prove conclusively that Ceresit 
actually increases the tensile strength of 
concrete to a great degree. Send for Cata¬ 
log or descriptive booklets of Ceresit 
Products. 


OTHER 



PRODUCTS 


Crescent Waterproofing Cresolac Transparent 

Powder Waterproofing 


Crescent Plaster Bond Crescent Metallic Hardener 

Crescent Dampproofing Cem-Bric Covering Compound 

Indurite Liquid Hardener Craxement—for Concrete Repair* 


Ceresit Waterproofing Corporation 

Successors to Crescent Sales & Mfg. Company 

10 S. La Salle St. Phone DEARborn 8724 Chicago 

















CONCRETE PRODUCTS 


637 




HYDRO-STONE 

CO. 

218 S. Wabash Ave. 
CHICAGO, ILL. 


Bank—Handsome as Granite. 


An attractive practical building unit that 
rivals the finest natural stone in variety 
and texture. 

Made from a wet mix concrete under 
150,000 lbs. pressure. Extremely dense. 

HYDRO-STONE equipment makes all 
widths of wall, faced walls, unfaced walls, 
exterior or interior. It makes the best 
walls for stucco, walls to back up brick, 
stone or terra cotta, slabs for veneer, etc. 

Fill the demand for HYDRO-STONE 
and build a profitable permanent business. 

Our service assures success. 
























638 


CONCRETE PRODUCTS 



Uniform in Quality 
Dependable in Supply 

Concrete products manufacturers who 
want a cement that is uniform in qual¬ 
ity and dependable in supply can get it 
in Lehigh—the National Cement. 

Lehigh's sixteen mills cover the coun¬ 
try from coast to coast. Their output 
and storage capacity is the largest in 
the industry, and insure for you at all 
times an adequate supply of cement 
when, where, and as you want it. 

Lehigh cement is well advertised, and 
millions of people recognize it as a 
quality material. Your product made 
of Lehigh Cement will further indi¬ 
vidualize it. 

Lehigh Portland Cement Co. 

Allentown, Pa. Chicago, Ill. 

Birmingham, Ala. Spokane, Wash. 

New York N. Y. Boston, Mass. Philadelphia, Pa. 
Buffalo, N. Y. New Castle, Pa. Pittsburgh, Pa. 
Kansas City, Mo. Mason City, la. Minneapolis, Minn. 
Omaha, Neb. Richmond, Va. 




























MEMORANDUM 






639 





































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